»,x^ ^ V.^ 








'ELEMENTA/ 

roWINTON. 





Class T E \ \ 1 1 
Book ^VL. 



Gopight^" I g n s 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT 



NEW 



LANGUAGE LESSONS: 



AN ELEMENTARY 



GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION. 



By WILLIAM SWINTON, 

AUTHOR OF "SWINTON'S LANGUAGE SERIES," ETC. 



NEW YORK •:• CINCINNATI •:■ CHICAGO. 

AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY. 



LIBRARY or OUNGK£SS| 


Iwu Oouies 


riticeivea 


JUL 25 


1905 


COPY B. 






Copyright, 1877, by 

Harper and Brothers, 

Copyright, 1905, by Jean Swinton. 



LC Control Number 



tnip96 027994 






£ 



g PREFACE, 



j^ The present text-book is a new-modeling and rewriting of 
Swinton's Language Lessons. It has grown out of a double 
motive : first, the desire of better fitting it to fill its place as 
the intermediate book of Swinton's New Language Series; 
and, next, the conviction that an elementary manual might be 
made, which, combining the essentials of English Grammar and 
Composition, should find especial welcome in ungraded schools. 
The remarkable favor with which the Language Lessons was 
received has suggested the propriety of retaining, in the new 
book, at least the spirit of the old. In that work the author's 
theory was set forth in the following words: 

" This book is an attempt to bring the subject of language 
home to children at tha age when knowledge is acquired in an 
objective way, by practice and habit, rather than by the study of 
rules and definitions. In pursuance of this plan, the traditional 
presentation of grammar in a bristling array of classifications, 
nomenclatures, and paradigms has been wholly discarded. The 
pupil is brought in contact with the living language itself: he 
is made to deal with speech, to turn it over in a variety of ways, 
to handle sentences; so that he is not kept back from the exer- 
cise — so profitable and interesting — of using language till he 
has mastered the anatomy of the grammarian. Whatever of 
technical grammar is here given is evolved from work previously 
done bv the scholar." 



W PREFACE. 

In the actual test of the schoolroom during the past four 
years, it has been found that the vitalizing elements of the 
Language Lessons are, first, the analytic or inductive method of 
unfolding the theory of language; and, secondly, the aff uence 
of constructive work. Accordingly, in the preparation of the 
present book these approved features have been retained; but 
it has been the author s aim to remold the book on a more 
comprehensive plan, with a more systematic arrangement and 
a more orderly development of the subject. Wherever the 
book was thought to be weak, — as, for instance, according to 
many, on the side of too great a neglect of grammatical forms, — 
it has been "toned up;" and, throughout, the effort has been 
made to produce a thorough, working text-book. 

To the thousands of teachers who gave the old Language 
Lessons a reception exceptional in the history of text-books, the 
author desires to commend the New Language Lessons as being, 
in his belief, more worthy of their acceptance, and, in his hope, 
a nearer approach to their ideal. 

William Swinton. 

Dec., 1877. 



CONTENTS. 



SECTION. PAGE 

I. CLASSES OF WORDS 2 

II. THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS 21 

III. SUBDIVISION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH 60 

IV. MODIFICATIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH 85 

V. SYNTAX 116 

VL ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS 144 

APPENDIX 181 



INDEX. 



A, article, 6. 

Abstract noun, definition of, 62. 

Active voice, 103. 

Adjective, definition of, 6; use of, as 
modifier, 29; qualifying, Yl; limit- 
ing, 72; proper, 71 ; pronominal, 73; 
irregular, comparison of, 97; com- 
parison of, 96; syntax of. 123; pred- 
icate, syntax of, 125. 

Adjunct, definition of, 28, 144. 

Adverb, definition of, 9 ; use of, as mod- 
ifier, 42; simple, 78; conjunctive, 78; 
comparison of, 97; syntax of, 131; 
misuse of, 125. 

An, article, 6. 



Analysis, definition of, 144 ; of the sim- 
ple sentence, 148-150; of complex 
sentences, 154-157; of the compound 
sentence, 162-164. 

Antecedent, definition of, 68. 

Apposition, explanation of, 36; syntax 
of, 127. 

Article, definite, 72; indefinite, 72; use 
of, 72, 73 ; syntax of, 124, 

Auxiliary verb, 103, 

Bills, forms of, 176. 

Capitals, rules for use of, 21, 61, 71. 
Case, definition of, 89; nominative, «9; 



vi 



possessive, 80; objective, 89; pos- 
sessive, syntax of, 12i>. 

Clause, definition of, 147. 

Common noun, definition of, 61. 

Comparative decree, definition of, 96; 
rule for use or^ 124. 

Comparison, definition of, 96; rules 
for the adjective and adverb, 96, 97 ; 
of irregular adjectives, 97. 

Complement, syntax of, 130. 

Complex sentence, 147 ; analvsis, 154- 
157; synthesis of the, 158-162. 

Composition, definition of, 1. 

Compound sentence, 147 ; analysis of 
the, 162-164; svnthesis of the, 164- 
167. 

Conjugation, definition of, 103; regu- 
lar, 103; irregular, 103. 

Conjunction, definition of, 14; subor- 
dinate, definition of, 80 ; coordinate, 
80; syntax of, 137. 

Construction, rule of, 117, 118. 

Contraction of sentence, 169, 170. 

Coordinate conjunction, definition of, 



Declension, definition of, 89. 
Degrees of comparison, 96. 

Expansion of sentences, 167, 168. 

Forms of the verb, 184; progressive, 
184; emphatic, 184, 185. 

Gender, explanation of, 90. 
Gerund, explanation of, 102. 
Grammar, definition of, 1. 

Imperative mood, 101. 
Indicative mood, 101. 
Infinitive mood, definition of, 101; 

syntax of, 129, 139. 
Interjection, definition of, 10; syntax 

of, 138. 
Interrogative pronoun, definition of, 

68; declension of, 95. 
Intransitive verb, definition of, 76. 
Irregular verb, definition of, 103; list 

of, 187-192. 

Language, definition of, 1. 
Language lessons, definition of, 1. 
Letter - writing, directions for, 171- 

175. 
Limiting adjective, 72. 
Love, to, conjugation of, 104-1U7. 



Modification, definition of, 86. 
Modifier, definition of, 28, 144. 
Mood, definition of, 101 ; indicative, 

101 ; potential, 101 ; subjunctive, 101 ; 

imperative, 101. 

No, 78. 

Nominative case, 89. 

Nominative independent, svntax of, 
38. 

Note, promissory, 178, 179, 

Nouns, definition of, 2; in apposition, 
36; common, definition of, 61 ; prop- 
er, definition of, 61 ; abstract, defini- 
tion of, 62; modification of, 87 ; gen- 
der of, 90; declension of, 90; person 
of, 90, 91. 

Number, definition of, 87 ; definition 
of, in verb, 91>' irregularities of, in 
nouns, 182. 

Object, definition of, 50 ; of a verb, rule 
for, 128; indirect, 129. 

Objective case, definition of, 89; gov- 
ernment of by a preposition, 136 ; 
syntax of, 128. 

Parsing, definition of, 116; model for, 

116, 117. 
Participle, definition of, 102; mode of 

forming ])resent, 102; mode of past, 

102; syntax of, 123, 129. 
Parts, principal, of a verb, 103. 
Parts of sp<?tch classified, 2-20; sub 

division of the, 60-84; modification 

of the, 85-115. 
Passive voice, definition of, 103 ; mode 

of forming, 103. 
Person, definition of, 66. note ; explana- 
tion of. 90, 91 ; definition of, in verbs, 

99. 
Personal pronoun, definition of, 66; 

declension of, 94. 
Phrase, definition of, 40, 146; adjec- 
tive, definition of, 40; adverbial, 

definition of, 44; arrangement of, 

48. 
Plural of nouns, rules for, 87, 88 ; double 

forms of, 181 ; in foreign nouns, 182; 

in compound nouns, 183. 
Possessive case, use of as modifier, 33 ; 

definition of, 89; rule for forming 

the, 89; syntax of, 126. 
Potential mood, lul. 
Predicate, simple, 28, 144; complete, 

28, 145 ; modification of, -42-48 ; with 



vu 



object, 49, 50 ; adjective, definition 
of, 53; nominative, definition of, 53; 
adjective, syntax of, 125. 

Preposition, definition of, 12 ; list of, 
13; syntax of, 136. 

Principal parts of a verb, 103. 

Pronoun, definition of, 11 ; personal, 
definition of, 66; relative, definition 
of, 68; interrogative, definition of, 
68; modifications of, 94, 95; person- 
al, declension of, 94; relative and 
interrogative, declension of, 95 ; syn- 
tax of, 133. 

Proper noun, definition of, 61. 

Proposition, definition of, 145. 

Punctuation, rules for, 22, 47, 50, 151, 
152, 158, 159, 164, 165. 

Qualifying adjective, 71. 

Receipts, forms of, 177, 178. 

Regular verb, definition of, 103; con- 
jugation of, 104-107. 

Relative pronoun, definition of, 68 ; 
declension of, 95. 

Root of a verb, 102. 

Rules for plural, 87, 88. 

Sentence, definition of, 21, 144; kinds 
of, 22; its elements, 21-59; simple, 
147; complex, 147; compound, 147. 

Simple sentence, 147 ; analysis of the, 
148-150; synthesis of, 151-154. 

Subject, definition of, 144; simple, 28, 
144; complete, 28, 144; modifiers of, 
29-41 ; syntax of, 118. 



Subjunctive mood, 10; syntax of, 140. 

Subordinate conjunction, definition of, 
80. 

Subscription, models of, 171-175. 

Superlative degree, definition of, 96 ; 
rule for use of, 124. 

Superscriptions, models of, 171-175. 

Syntax, definition of, 116; false, exer- 
cises in, 141, 142. 

Synthesis, definition of, 144; of the 
simple sentence, 151-154; of the 
complex sentence, 158-162; of the 
compound sentence, 164-169. 

Tense, definition of, 100. 
The, article, 6. 

To love, conjugation of, 104-107. 
Transitive verb, definition of, 76. 

Verb, definition of, 4; transitive, de- 
finition of, 76 ; intransitive, defini- 
tion of, 76; neuter, 76; interchange- 
ability of transitive and intransitive, 
76; modification of the, 99-110; con- 
jugation of, 103 ; principal parts of, 
103; auxiliary, 103; syntax of, 120; 
irregular, conjugation of, 183; "to 
be, conjugation of, 185; list of ir- 
regular, 187-192. 

Verbals, definition of, 101. 

Voice, definition of, 102; active, 103: 
-•— 103. 



Words, classes of, 2-20. 
Yes, 78. 



mW LANGUAGE LESSONS. 



INTRODUCTORY LESSON. 

1. Language is the expression of thought by means of 
spoken or written words. 

2. Language lessons furnish rules for speaking and writ- 
ing correctly, and practice in composition. Language study 
is divided into two parts: I, Geammae. II. Composition. 

3. Grammar is the science that treats of the principles 
of language. 

4. Composition is the art of writing correctly. 



This book is divided into six parts or sections: 

1. Classes of Words. 
II. The Sentence and its Elements. 

III. Subdivision of the Parts of Speech. 

IV. Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 
V. Syntax. 

VI. Analysis and Synthesis. 

(1) 



SECTION I. 

CLASSES OF WORDS. 



I. — NOUNS, OR NAME WORDS. 

1. Columbus discovered America. 

2. Buffaloes roam over the praines. 

3. Are you fond of skating ? 

4. We love the fragrance oi flowers. 

Analysis. — The word '' Columbus " is the name of a person ; the 
word "America" is the name of a place; the word "buifaloes " is 
the name of certain animals; the words " prairies " and " flowers " 
are names of things; the word "skating" is the name of an 
action; the word "fragrance" is the name of a quality. 

Explanation Words that are used as names of persons, 

places, things, actions, or qualities, are name words. In gram- 
mar they are called nouns. 

Definition. — A noun, or name word, is the name of anything. 

NOTE. — In selecting the nouns in a sentence, pupils should remem- 
ber, that, when it is stated that a noun is the " name of anything," we 
do not mean by "thing" merely what we know by our senses, but any 
object (person, place, thing), (iction, or (juality. "A noun is the name 
of anything, existing or conceived by the mind." — Stcinton's EnglisJi 
Ora/nima/r. 



NOUNS, OR NAME WORDS. 



EXERCISE 1. 



1. Mention (or write) the names of all the things you see in the 

schoolroom. 

2. Mention (or write) the names of five persons of whom you 

have read. 

3. Mention (or write) the names of five places of which you 

have read. 

4. Mention (or write) the names of five actions, as singing. 

5. Mention (or write) the names of five feelings of the body 

(as hunger) or of the mind (&s jnty). 



Copy the following sentences on slates or paper, drawing a 
line under each noun. 

1. Tea grows in China. 2. The oak bears acorns. 3. Webster 
was a great orator. 4. Paris is the capital of France. 5. The 
greatest of tbese is charity. 6. Sometimes we see a ship. 
7. Sometimes we ship a sea. 8. Singing in concert is an 
improving exercise. 9. The light comes in at the window. 
10. The lightning flashes and the thunder roars. 11. Honesty 
is the best policy. 12. Seeing is believing. 13. Shakespeare 
was born at Stratford, in England. 14. I fear your joy is 
short-lived. 15. The scent of the roses hangs round it still. 
16. Go where glory waits thee ; 

But when fame elates thee, 

Oh, then remember me. 

C. 

Mention each noun in the preceding exercise, and apply the 
definition of a noun. 

Model ; " Tea grows in China." 
"Tea" is a noun, because it is tlie name of something ; " China''" is a noun, be- 
cause it is the name of something. 



4 CLASSES OF WORDS. [SEC. I. 

II. -VERBS, OR ACTION WORDS. 

1. The sun shines. 

2. Are you idHting ? 

3. Bring me a book. 

Analysis The word " shines " tells or states something about 

the sun; it is used in rliaking a statement. The words '* are writ- 
ing" are used in asking a question. The word ''bring" is used 
in expressing a command. 

Explanation A word that is used in stating what any per- 
son or thing does or is, or in asking what a person does or is, or 
in telling another person to do or he something, is called a verb. 

Definition. — A verb is a word that expresses action or being. 



NOTES. 



I. "A verb is a word that predicates action or being" {Stcinton's 
English Grammar). To "predicate" signifies to express, assert, or de- 
clare. This is the principal use of verbs, though they are also employed 
in asking questions and expressing commands. 

II. A verb may consist of more than one word : as, is learning, icill 
be told, Ms been requested. Hence, in selecting verbs, care must be taken 
to include all the words needed to express the action or state of being 
^tended to be expressed in the given sentence. 



EXERCISE 2. 
a. 
Add verbs telling what the following things do. 

Model : " The kitten " The kitten romps in the garden. 

1. The kitten 5. The clock .... 

2. The boy C. Kings 

3. The girl 7. The sun 

4. The birds 8. The wind 



VERBS, OR ACTION WORDS. 



b. 

Join verbs telling about the following things 
thing). 

Model : " The apple " The apple is sour. 

1. The apple sour. 5. Soldiers . 

2. The grapes ripe. 6. Honesty . 

3. James here yesterday. 7. London . , 

4. Iron malleable. 8, The lion . 



- (some- 



Fill up the blanks with suitable verbs. 

I. Trees .... in forests. 2. David a lion and a bear. 3. The 

glazier . . . , the window. 4. The artist .... a picture. 5. The 
grocer tea. 6. The servant downstairs. 

d. 

Copy the following sentences, drawing one line under each 
noun, and two lines under each verb. 

1. The cuckoo builds no nest for herself. 

2. The elephant surpasses all other land animals in size. 

3. Vast prairies extend beyond the Mississippi. 

4. Before our house a prattling river runs. 

5. A herd of cattle grazed in a meadow. 

6. The timid bird saw the snake in the grass. 

7. My father's fields have produced corn. 

8. Those pears may ripen on the wall. 

9. Diogenes lived in a tub. 

10. The ship was wrecked on the coast. 

II. Some might have been saved. 

13. " Will you walk into my parlor?" 
Said the spider to the fly. 



Mention each verb in the preceding paragraph, and state how 
you know that it is a verb. 

Model : " Builds " is a verb, because it expresses action. 



6 CLASSES OF WORDS. [SEC. I. 

III.— ADJECTIVES. 

1. Bring me that book. 

2. Here is a drove of ten cattle. 

3. The ripe fruit is plucked. 

Analysis. — The word " that " is added to the noun '' book " to 
tell which book is meant; the word ''ten" is added to the noun 
<< cattle" to tell hoio many are meant; the word "ripe" is added 
to the noun " fruit " to tell what kind or quality of fruit is meant. 

Explanation. — Words such as "that" and "ten" are said to 
limit the meaning of a noun with which they are joined. A 
word such as " ripe " is said to express some quality of the thing 
named by a noun, or to qualify the meaning of a noun. 

A word which limits or qualifies the meaning of a noun is 
called an adjective. 

Definition. — An adjective is a word joined to a noun to limit 
or qualify its meaning. 



NOTES. 

I. Sometimes adjectives are used with the class of words called 
pronouns. (See definition, page 11.) 

II. The words a or art, and the, are adjectives, because they limit (or 
define) the meaning of nouns ; but they are often called articles. 



EXERCISE 3. 
a. 

Use with each noun an adjective to limit or qualify its meaning. 

Model : " Fine grapes grow in sunny Prance." 

1 grapes grow in .... France. 2. The tree has .... 

leaves. 3. The cat catches .... mice. 4. The wind 



tree. 



ADJECTIVES. 7 

blew down the trees. 5. The picture is ... . 6. The 

, . . . clouds float in the .... sky. 

7 drops of water, 

grains of sand, 

Make the .... ocean, 

And the land. 

b. 

Join with each of the following nouns as many appropriate 
adjectives as you can think of, and prefix a or an, as in this model. 

an old 
a green 
a tall 

an elegant 
a magnificent 
a fruit-bearing. 
1. tree. 3. horse. 3. house. 4. man. 5. water. 6. bird. 

c. 

In the following sentences, select the adjecti 
you know each is an adjective. 

Model : " Dashing " is an adjective, because ' 
— to qualify its meaning; "rock-bound" is a* 
noun —"■ coast " — to qualify its meaninf 
" a " is an article, limiting " coast." 

1. The dashing wavei=' ' 

2. A large gar ^ 

3. A hand? 

4. Hail 

5. F- 
6 



CLASSES OF WORDS. 



[SEO. I. 



d. 

Arrange the adjectives, nouns, and verbs in the sentences 
below, in separate cplumns. (The articles may be omitted.) 
Model : " Beautiful ferns grow in shady places." 



ADJECTIVE. 


NOUN. 


VERB. 


beautiful 
shady 


ferns 
places 


grow 



1. The tall girl ate the sweet apple. 2. The Grecian army gained 
a splendid victory, 3. Little drops of water make the mighty 
ocean. 4. The poor boy has a blind father. 5. Switzerland is 
noted for its lofty mountains and beautiful lakes. 6. A rainy 
day gladdens the wliite ducks. 

7. How doth the little busy bee 
Improve each shining hour ! 



-ADVERBS. 

'^r)p hrigJitly. 

ily dear, 
■ftly. 



lething to the 

'"•^ly" adds 

he word 

verb) 



I 



ADVERBS. 9 

Definition. — An adverb is a word used to modify the meaning 
of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. 

NOTE. — An adverb generally denotes time, place, manner^ or degree : 
as — 

I saw my uncle [when ?] yesterday time. 

I met him [where ?] here place. 

He spoke to me [how?] pleasantly manner. 

He spoke to me [degree?] very pleasantly, degree. 



EXERCISE 4. 
a. 

Supply suitable adverbs to fill the blanks in the following 
sentences. 

Model : " Call me early in the morning." 

1. Call me in the morning. 2. Glass is brittle. 3. The 

exercise is written. 4. The robin sings very .... 5. The 

boy has .... returned. 6. Well-baked bread is .... whole- 
some. 7 will you come ? 8. Tell him to walk 

9. The bells rang 10. We shall rest 11. The moon 

shines 13. King Alfred governed .... 

b. 

Make six sentences containing adverbs ^ 

of time 

Make six sentences containing adverbs 

of 2^ictce 

Make eight sentences containing adverbs 

of manner 



Make twelve sentences containing ad- 
verbs of degree 



Using the verbs 
come, go, call, 
ivalk, run, jump, 
fly, sing, cry, etc. 



Using the adjec- 
tives soft, hard, 
siueet, bitter, flue, 
blue, etc, 
c. 
In the following sentences, select the adverbs, and state why 
each is an adverb. 

Model : " Terribly " is an adverb, because it modifies the meaning of the verb 
"blew." 



10 



CLASSES OF WORDS. 



[sec. 



1. The wind blew terribly. 2. The boys swim badly. 3. I know 
where he did it, when he did it, and why he did it. 4. Charles 
was here yesterday. 5. The stars are very bright. 6. We 
must win now or never. 7. The eagle flies exceedingly high. 
8. Alice's exercise is well written. 9. We shall not fail. 
10. The • ' Tribune " is published daily. 11. Few men are always 
happy. 12. This lesson has not been perfectly prepared. 



Arrange the adjectives, nouus, verbs, and adverbs in the fol- 
lowing sentences, in separate columns, as in the model. (In- 
clude the articles among the adjectives.) 

Model : " The merry little squirrel sat slyly on the branch of a very lofty 



ADJECTIVE. 


NOUN. 


VERB. 


ADVERB. 


the 


squirrel 


sat 


slvlv 


merry 


branch 




very 


little 


tree 






the 








a 








lofty 









1. The treacherous spider soon caught the poor fly. 

2. The house was entered yesterday, and the thief stole the silver 

plate. 

3. The sun shone brightly on the calm waters of the ocean. 

4. The sailors danced joyously when the gallant ship entered the 

harbor. 

5. He sang sweetly the old songs of his boyhood. 

6. The fire burns cheerily in the grate to-night. 

7. Heavy masses of mist floated lazily across the high mountains. 

8. A winter so cold has never been known before. 

9. Where is my brother now ? 



PRONOUNS. 11 



v. — PRONOUNS. 

1. /am glad that you have come. 

2. Frank likes his dog, and it likes him. 

Analysis. — The word ''I" shows that the person speaking 
aeans himself; it is used for the name of the speaker. The word 
" you " shows that he is speaking to some one ; it is used for the 
name of that person. The word " it " takes the place of the noun 
" dog ; " the word " him " takes the place of the noun " Frank." 

Explanation. — Words that are used for real names, or that 
are used instead of nouns, are called pronouns ; that is, for names, 
or for nouns. 

Definition. — A pronoun is a word used for a name, or instead 
of a noun. 

NOTE, — The following words are among the principal pronouns: 

I you we he she it they 

me us him her them 



EXERCISE 5. 
a. 

Complete the following sentences by adding pronouns. 

1. If you tease the dog, .... will bite .... 

2. The pond is deep, and there are many fish in .... 

3. The man ran after the rabbit, but .... could not catch .... 

4. My aunt saw the pictures, but did not buy 

l\ Tell .... (the speaker) what brings .... (the person addressed), 
gentle youth, to Rome. 

b. 

Use pronouns instead of the words in italics. 

Model : " I come to bury Caesar, not to praise Ccesar.''' I come to bury Csesar, 
not to praise him. 



12 CLASSES OF WORDS. [SEC. I. 

1 . I come to bury Caesar, not to praise Cmsar. 

2. Thomas plowed the field, but lliomas did not plow the field 

well. 

3. New York is a large city ; New York is the metropolis of the 

Empire State. 

4. The general told the soldiers that the soldiers would gain the 

victory. 

5. The crocodile lives in large swamps ; the crocodile belongs to 

the lizard kind, and the crocodile is amphibious. 

6. Alexander was an ambitious man ; Alexander conquered the 

whole world, and then Alexander sighed because Alexander 
had no more worlds to conquer. 

7. The queen walked in the queen's garden with the queen's maids ; 

the queen's maids wore blue dresses, and these dresses [which] 
were trimmed with lace. 

c. 

Copy the following sentences, drawing a line under each 
pronoun. 

1. Charles and I ran home ; we were tired. 

2. John is a good boy ; he has learned his lesson. 

3. You should not lose your place. 

4. Whales are not fishes, though they live in the sea. 

5. The farmer's wife gave me an apple, and she said I was not to 

eat it until I went home. 

6. She said, " Sir, we are seven." 

7. I had a little pony, 

His name was Dapple Gray, 
I lent him to a lady. 
To ride a mile away. 



VI. — PREPOSITIONS. 

1. The ship sailed /^•t'w Boston. 

2. The book on the desk is mine. 

Analysis. — In the first sentence the word " from " expresses a 
relation between " Boston " and " sailed." In the second sentence 



PREPOSITIONS. 13 

the word "on" expresses a relation of place between '' desk " 
and "book." 

Explanation. — Words that express a relation between a noun 
or pronoun and some other word are called prepositions. They 
connect the words between which there is a relation of meaning. 

Definition. — A preposition is a connective word expressing a 
relation of meaning between a noun or pronoun and some other 
word. 

NOTE. — In our language there are about fifty of these relation 
words. The following are the most used prepositions : 



at 
by 
for 


from 

in 

of 


off 
on 
through 


till 
to 


up 
with 




EXERCISE 6. 





Supply suitable prepositions to fill the blanks in the following 
sentences. 

MODEI The visitor passed through the gate." 

1. The visitor passed .... the gate. 

2. Swallows build the eaves of houses. 

8. The mighty Andes rise ... the clouds. 

4. The orator was received applause. 

5. Place my book .... the table. 

6. Will you come .... my house ? 

7. Children coming home .... school look in ... the open door. 

8. The poem .... " Paradise Lost " was written .... Milton. 

9. Carry that box .... James .... my compliments. 

10. Did you buy that book .... me ? 

11. We work .... noon .... dewy eve. 
13 whom are you speaking ? 



J 4 CLASSES OF WORDS. [SEC. 



In the following sentences, select the prepositions, and tell 
why each is a preposition. 

Model : " in " is a preposition, because it shows a relation of meaning between 
" heart " and " truth ; "''' " on " is a preposition, because it shows a relation of mean- 
ing between "lips" and "truth." 

1. Truth in the heart is better than truth on tlie lips. 

2. The trees of the garden are loaded with fruit. 

3. I walked yesterday from our house to the church. 

4. The river flows down the valley. 

5. The boy in the boat caught a fish with a line. 

6. A sailor at sea looks hopefully for land. 

7. The child met me on the road. 

8. We must return to the dust from which we were taken. 

9. They grew in beauty side by side, 
They filled one home with glee ; 
Their graves are scattered far and wide, 
By mount and stream and sea. 



VII. — CONJUNCTIONS. 

1. James and John went home together. 

2. I went because he asked me. 

Analysis. — The word " and " connects the two nouns " James " 
and "John;" the word "because" connects "I went" and "he 
asked me," which are parts of the sentence. 

Explanation. — A word used to connect two words or other 
parts, or ekmenls, of a sentence, or to connect two statements in 
the same sentence, is called a conjunctio)}. 

Definition. — A conjunction is a word used to connect sentences 
or the elements of a sentence. 



CONJUNCTIONSr 15 



NOTES. 



I, The elements of a sentence are the icords, xihrases, or propositions 
of which it is composed. (For definitions, see pages 144, 145.) 

II. The following are some of the principal conjunctions: 

and either — or if 

but neither — nor than 

because for that 



EXERCISE 7. 



Supply suitable conjunctions to fill the blanks in the following 
sentences. 

Model : " He is poor, hut he is honest." 

1. He is poor, .... he is honest. 

2. Ann Ella are sitting on the grass. 

3. Do it, I wish you to do it. 

4. Art is long, time is fleeting. 

5. I will tell him, he ask me. 

6. Either he I must be in the wrong. 

7. I did not know your brother had hurt himself. 

8. Texas is larger New York. 

9. All seek happiness, .... not many find it. 

10. Hannibal, Caesar, Napoleon were great generals. 

b. 

In the following sentences, select the conjunctions^ and tell why- 
each is a conjunction. 

Model : " And " is a conjunction, because it connects the nouns "animals " and 
"plants," two elements of the sentence ; "and " is a conjunction, because it con- 
nects "live " and " grow," two elements of the sentence. 



1. Animals and plants live and grow. 

2. The father wept, for his son was dead. 

3. Richard sat down, but his sister ran ofE. 



16 CLASSES OB^ WOKDS. [SEC. 

4. Two and two make four ; but two and three make five. 

5. Neither soldiers nor sailors could advance. 

6. No harm was done, though the storm was very severe. 

7. I like him because he is generous. 

8. We heard that you had arrived. 

9. They are brave and modest boys. 
10. They are slow, but they are sure. 



VIII. — INTERJECTIONS. 

1. Alas ! poor Yorick : I knew him, Horatio. 

2. Aha ! papa, I have found you out. 

Analysis. — The word "alas" is an exclamation of sorrow; 
the word "aha" is an exclamation of surprise and pleasure. 

Explanation. — A word of exclamation denoting some sudden 
feeling is called an interjection. This literally signifies a word 
merely thrown in among the other words in a sentence. 

Definition. — An interjection is a word which expresses an emo- 
tion. 



EXERCISE 8. 

In the following sentences, select the interjections, and tell why 
they are interjections. 

1. Hush ! you should not talk now. 

2. Fie ! it was not kind of you to do so. 

3. Alas ! they had been friends in youth. 

4. Hurrah ! we are to have a holiday. 

5. Ho ! breakers on the weather bow ! 

6. Adieu, adieu ! my native shore fades on my sight. 



SUMMARY. 11 



stjm:jm:ary. 



All the words in the English language are arranged in 
classes, called parts of speech. These are : 

1. Noun. 5. Pronoun. 

2. Verb. 6. Preposition. 

3. Adjective. 7. Conjunction, 

4. Adverb. 8. Interjection. 

1. A noun, or name word, is the name of anything. 

2. A verb is a word that expresses action or being. 

3. An adjective is a word joined to a noun to limit or qualify 
its meaning. 

4. An adverb is a word used to modify the meaning of a verb, 
an adjective, or another adverb. 

5. A pronoun is a word used for a name, or instead of a noun. 

6. A preposition is a connective word expressing a relation of 
meaning between a noun or pronoun and some other word. 

7. A conjunction is a word used to connect sentences, or the 
elements of a sentence. 

8. An interjection is a word which expresses an emotion. 



REVIEW EXERCISES. 



Make (orally or in writing) sentences of two words each 
telling what the following animals do. 

Model: "Bees buzz." 

1. Bees 5. Owls 9. Squirrels 

2. Dogs 6. Hens 10. Crickets 

3. Cats 7. Geese 11. Bears 

4. Horses 8. Eagles .... 12. Wolves ... . 



18 CLASSES OF WORDS. [SEC. I, 

b. 

Make (orally or in writing) sentences by joining to each noun 
an adjective, and to each verb an adverh. 

Model : " Good scholars study diligently.'" 

1. Scholars study. 5. Fruit ripens. 

2. Men work. 6. The fire burns. 

3. The wind blows. 7. Birds sing. 

4. The girls sew. 8. The cat and the dog played. 

C. 

Make (orally or in writing) sentences by joining a verb with 
each of the following pronouns. 

Model : "I study." 

1. I ... . 4. We ... . 7. It ... . 

2. He ... . 5. You ... . 8. Who . . . . ? 

3. She ... , 6, They .... 9. What . . . . ? 

d. 

Make (orally or in writing) sentences by putting a noun after 
each of the following prepositions. 

Model : " Tea comes from China."' 

1. Tea comes /7'ow .... 4. The cow jumped over 

2. The sun rises in ... 5. The church \s on 

3. The dogs ran through 6. We went to Chicago hy .... 

e. 

Make (orally or in writing) sentences by supplying a conjunc- 
tion where required. 

Model : " Boys and girls write." 

1. Boys girls write. 

2. Dogs bark .... bite. 

8. Will you have pears peaches? 

4. I will go ... . you will. 

5. I have neither gold .... silver. 

6. John recites well in grammar .... poorly in geography. 



COMPOSITION EXERCISES. 19 

COMPOSITION EXERCISES. 

a. 

We may briefly describe a place by answering the following 
questions : 

1. What is it ? 2. Where is it ? 3. Wliat is it noted for ? 
Model : " Chicago." 

1. It is a great city. 

2. It is in the State of Illinois. 

3. It is noted for its trade in grain. 

These statements may be thus combined; 
Chicago, a great city in the State of Illinois, is noted for its trade 
in grain. 

Make statements of each of the following places, and combine 
into a sentence. 

1. Boston. 4. New Orleans. 

2. San Francisco. 5. Baltimore. 

3. Cincinnati. 6. The place you live in. 

b. 

We may briefly describe a building, such as a house, a church, 
or a railroad depot, by answering the following questions: 

1. What is it ? 2. What is it used for ? 3. What are its principal 
parts ? 4. What is it built of ? 

Model : " a house." 

1. It is a building. 

2. It is used for a dwelling place. 

3. Its principal parts are the walls, roof, floors, rooms, windows, 

doors, and halls. 

4. It is built of wood, brick, or stone. 

Combined. — A house is a building which is used for a dwelling place. 
■ It is built of wood, brick, or stone ; and its principal parts are the walls, 
roof, floors, rooms, windows, doors, and halls. 



20 CLASSES OF WORDS. [SEC. I. 

Make statements of each of the following objects, and combine 
into two sentences. 

1. A church. 4. A jail. 

2. A railroad depot. 5. An asylum. 

3. A barn. 6. Our post oflfice. 



The following story is to be read aloud to the class, and pupils 
are then to write what they can remember of it. (This is called 
an abstract from memory.) 

DON'T GIVE TOO MUCH FOR THE WHISTLE. 

When I was a little boy about seven years old, my friends, on a 
holiday, filled my pockets with spending money. I went directly 
towards a shop where toys for children were sold ; and being 
charmed with the sound of a whistle in the hands of another 
boy that I met by the way, I offered him all my money for it. 
I then came home, and went whistling over the house, much 
pleased with my whistle, but disturbing all the family. My 
brothers, sisters, and cousins, hearing of the bargain I had made, 
told me I had given four times as much for the whistle as it was 
worth. This put me in mind what good things I might have 
bought with the rest of the money ; and they laughed at me so 
much for my folly that I cried with vexation. This little event 
was afterwards of use to me, for often, when I was tempted to 
buy some unnecessary thing, I said to myself: '.* Don't give too 
much for the whistle ; " and so I saved my money. — Beiijarain 
Franklin. 



SECTION 11. 

THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS. 



IX. — DEFINITION OF THE SENTENCE. 

"Fire burns." 
Analysis. — Here something is named, — " fire." Something 
is said about fire, — (it) "burns." 

Explanation. — Whenever we say something alout anything, 
we express a thought. A thought expressed in words is called 
a sentence. 

Definition, — A sentence is a combination of words expressing 
a complete thought : as — 
1. Rain is falling, 
3. The stars are distant. 
3. The merry schoolboy whistles loudly. 

Rule for Capitals. — The first word of every sentence should 
begin with a capital letter. 

NOTE. — A sentence is made up of iDords ; but words thrown together 
at random do not form a sentence : they must mean something before 
they can be a sentence, A pupil was told to write a sentence on air. 
She wrote these words : "Tlie air that we breathe." Now, these words 
are not a sentence, for the reason that they do not make any complete 
statement. They might easily be converted into a sentence by saying, 
" The air that we breathe is sweet," or '• The air that we breathe is a 
duid." 

(21) 



22 



THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS. 



[sec. II. 



EXERCISE 9. 

Supply such words as will convert into sentences the following 
incomplete collections of words. 

Model : " in 149'2 Columbus discovered America."'' 

1. In 1492 Columbus 

2. The earth, in 365i days 

3. A band of robbers .... 

4. The story of Robinson Crusoe .... 

5. When Washington cut down the cherry tree . . „ . 

6. The city of New York is 

7. The Empire of China 

8 was a great patriot. 

9 gives milk. 

10 is the largest city in the world. 

11. , . . tell us the time of day. 

12 is an improving study. 

13 travel over the desert. 

14 live in Africa. 



X. —KINDS OF SENTENCES. 

I. A sentence may take one or other of these forms: 

1. Declarative. — It may simply express a statement, or declare 

something: as, "The sun shines." Such a sentence is called 
a declarative sentence. 

2. Interrogative. — It may ask a question: as, "Are you ill?" 

Such a sentence is called an interrogatice sentence. 

3. Imperative. — It may express a command : as, " Go away ! " Such 

a sentence is called an iirquratice sentence. 

4. Exclamative. — It may express a wish : as, "May every bless- 

ing attend you ! " Such a sentence is called an exclanuitive 
sentence. 



KINDS OF SENTENCES. 23 

II. Rule for Terminal Marks.* — A declarative or an impera- 
tive sentence is closed with a period (.); an interrogative sentence, 
with an interrogation point (?); an exclamative sentence, with an 
exclamation point (I)o 



EXERCISE 10. 



Copy on slates or paper the following sentences. 2^^ Ex- 
change exercises for correction as to (I) spelling, (2) capitals, 
and (3) terminal marks. 

1. The farmer mows the waving grass. 

2. Tell me what you want. 

8. What are you doing ? Where are you going ? 

4. How sweet the moonlight sleeps upon this hank ! 

5. Our brethren are already in the field. Why stand we here idle? 

Is life so dear, or peace so sweet, as to be purchased at the 
price of chains or slavery ? Forbid it, Almighty God ! 1 know 
not what course others may take ; but as for me, give me lib- 
erty or give me death ! 

6. Oh ! call my brother back to me ! 

I cannot play alone. 
The summer comes with flower and bee : 
Where is my brother gone ? 



Form sentences of the kinds indicated, using the following 
words : 



STATEMENTS, 

Washington 

Gold 

Our state 

Many ships 



QUESTIONS. 

is ... .situated? 

steam engine ? 

discovered. . . .? 

Did . . know ? 



COMMANDS. 



Write. . 
Send .. 
Honor . 



* A terminal mark is a mark oE punctuation placed at the eod or termination of 
a sentence. 



24 THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS. [SEC. II. 

C. 

Express each of the following statements in the form of a 
question, a command, and an exclamation. 

Model. 
1. Dogs delight to bark and bite. (Statement.) 

3. Do dogs delight to bark and bite? (Question.) 
*3. Let dogs delight to bark and bite. (Command.) 

4. How dogs delight to bark and bite! (Exclamation.) 

1. Dogs delight to bark and bite. 

2. The big fire burns brightly. 

3. Time flies rapidly. 

4. The storm rages fiercely. 

5. The scholars rejoice. 

6. The lion roars. 



XI. -SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 

"Birds fly." 

Analysis. — In this sentence, is anything named ? What ? Is 

anything said ahout them ? What ? 

Explanation. — Every sentence, however short, must have 
two parts : 1. The name of what is spoken of, or the subject ; 
2. What is stated of the subject, or the irredicate. 

In any collection of words, unless something ?'.9 named and 
something stated ahout what is named, there can be no state- 
ment, and hence no sentence. 

Definition I. — The subject of a sentence represents that of 
which something is stated. 

Definition II. — The predicate of a sentence tells what is stated 
of the subject. 

Definition III. — A simple sentence is one that contains but 
one subject and one predicate. 



SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 



25 



NOTES. 

I. Both the subject and the predicate may consist of many words. 

II. The question "Who (or what) is mentioned F " will always suggest 
the subject as its answer. And " W?iat is said of the subject ? " will give 
the predicate. Thus in the sentence, " The squirrel eyes the browning 
chestnuts," what is mentioned ? " The squirrel." What is said of the 
squirrel V " Eyes the browning chestnuts." 



EXERCISE 11. 



Make sentences, using suitable pairs of the following subjects 
and 2y''edtcaies. 

Model : "A dog worried a cat." 



Subjects. 



Predicates . 



f A dog, robin, crow, horse, baby, the boy, the 

< girl, the jockey, the coachman, the doctor, the 

( teacher, the musician, 

'taught the class, will play the fiddle, shall win 
the race, worried a cat, will sing a song, built 
a nest, upset the carriage, cured the man, trun- 
dles a hoop, shall toss a ball, wants its rattle, 
broke the fence. 



Supply suitable subjects. 



9. 
10. 



. . revolves around the sun in a year. 

. . is the season of snow and ice. 

. . are drawn over the snow iu sledges. 

. . suffered terribly at Valley Forge. 

. . is called the Father of his Country. 

. , sail across the Atlantic Ocean. 

. . wrote her exercise. 

. . lived on a desert island. 

. . tremble in the breeze. 

. . glides skillfully over the ice. 



26 THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS. [SEC. U 

C. 

Supply suitable predicates. 

1. London 

2. Coal 

3. Sounds of music .... 

4. Vessels 

5. The source of the Nile .... 

6. The children 

7. The fierce lion 

8. The kind-hearted doctor .... 

d. 

Write a sentence containing each of the following words. 
Underline all the words in the subject, and douhly underline all 
the words in the predicate. 

Model: "Smoke.'" Smoke curls up from the chimney. 

1. Smoke. 5. The steam engine. 

2. Desk. 6. The eagle. 

3. Air. 7. Money. 

4. Book. 8. Girls. 

^^^ Exchange papers, and see if the subjects and predicates 
are correctly underlined. 

e. 

Compose two or more sentences upon each of the following 
subjects: 

1. Cotton. 2. Dogs. 3. Robinson Crusoe. 

^^° Let some of the sentences be written on the blackboard, 
and made the basis of class criticism. Correct according to the 
following directions. 

1. Draw a line under each misspelled word. 

2. Draw a line through each small letter that should be a capital, 

or capital that should be a small letter. 
8. Mark a cross where a period is omitted. 



ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 27 

XII.— ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 

I. Analysis is the separation of a sentence into the parts or 
elements of which it is composed. 

II. Synthesis is the process of constructing sentences from 
their elements. 



EXERCISE 12. 



Analyze, according to the model, the following sentences. 

Model : " Trees blossom " is a sentence, because it expresses a thought ; and 
it is a simple sentence, because it contains but one subject and one predicate. 
"Trees" is the subject, because it represents that of which something is stated : 
"blossom " is the predicate, because it tells what is stated of ' ' trees." 

1. Trees blossom. 7. Dogs bark. 

2. Kings rule. 8. Grass will grow, 

3. Worms crawl. 9. Morning has dawned. 

4. Money was paid. 10. Bread nourishes. 

5. Boatmen were rowing. 11. Exercise invigorates. 

6. Lions roar. 12. Men have been loved. 

b. 
Construct sentences by joining a suitable subject with each of 
the following predicates, no sentence to contain more than two 
words. 

1. ... run. 5 play 9. ... fell. 

2 grow. 6 purs. 10 sailed. 

3 expand. 7 bellow. 11 died. 

4 die. 8 swim, 12 live. 

C. 

Construct sentences by joining a suitable predicate with each 
of the following subjects ; each predicate to consist of one verh 
only, though the verb may be expressed in more than one luord. 

1. Ladies 3. Rivers 5. Ships 

4. Greece .... 6. The teacher .... 



28 THE SEXTENCE AXD ITS ELEMENTS. [SEC. II. 



XIII. - SIMPLE AND COMPLETE SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 

I. A thought may be expressed by means of two words ; one 
being the subject, the other the predicate : thus — 

SUBJECTS. PREDICATES. 

Birds fly. 

Fishes swim. 

Diamonds sparkle. 

Nero fiddled. 

Rome remains. 

II. When the subject consists of a single word, it is called the 
simple subject; when the predicate consists of one verb (word or 
words), it is called the simple predicate. 

III. The simple subject and simple predicate often have 
words added to them to modify their meaning. One or more 
words added to another to modify its meaning is called an 
adjunct or modifier ; and a word thus added to is said to be 
modified or enlarged. 

IV. The complete subject or predicate is the subject or predi- 
cate with all its modifiers. 

1. Birds fly. 

This is a sentence with a simple subject, " birds," and a simple predicate, "fly." 

2. Some birds fly sioiftly. 

Here the subject is modified or enlarged by the word ' some," and the predicate 
by the word " swiftly." 

3. Some birds of prey fly very swiftly. 

Here the words " of prey " are added to the last subject, and " very " to the 
leist predicate. 

4. Some birds of prey, hamng secured their victim, fly icith it very 

swiftly to their nests. 

Here the subject and the predicate are modified or enlarged by many addi- 
tional worda. 



SUBJECT MODIFIED. 29 

SUBJECTS. PREDICATES. 

1. Birds fly. 

2. Some birds fly swiftly. 

3 Some birds of prey fly very swiftly. 

4. Some birds of prey, hav- 
ing secured their victim, fly with it very swiftly to their nests. 

Exercise. — In like manner, enlarge the following sentences till 
you make them as long as you can. Be careful to have only 
one subject and one predicate. 

1. Boys study. 2. A horse ran. 



XIV. - SUBJECT MODIFIED : By an Adjective. 

1. Three tall soldiers passed. 

2 The melancholy days have come. 

Analysis. — The word "tall" modifies "soldiers," which is 
the subject of the sentence; " three " limits " tall soldiers." The 
words •' the " and " melancholy " modify the subject " days." 

Explanation. — It is often necessary to modify (that is, to limit 
or qualify) the meaning of the noun subject. For this purpose we 
may use adjectives. " Three," " tall," "the," and "melancholy " 
are adjectives. 

First Modifier. — The simple subject may be modified by an 
adjective. 



EXERCISE 13. 
a. 

Analyze according to the model.* 

Model : " The melancholy days have come " is a simple sentence, ' ' Days ■" 

* At this stage of progress the analysis is to be confined to stating the simple 
.subject and its modifiers. The predicate may merely be named, not analyzed. 



30 THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS. [SEC. II. 

is the simple subject: it is modified by tlie adjectives "melancholy" and "the/' 
The predicate is " have come." 

1. The melancholy days have come. 2. Large bodie.s move slowly. 
3. The gray horses ran away. 4. Dark shadows stretched 
across the green meadow. 5. Huge elephants live in Africa. 
6. The lowing herd comes home. 7. Beautiful meadows lay 
below. 8. Early rising is healthful. 9. The rising sun shone 
through the window. 10. The wild cataract leaps in glory. 

b. 

Write six sentences, each of which shall contain one of the 
following nouns as its subject, and join one or more atljective 
modifiers with each subject. 

1. Schoolhouse. 3. Grass. 5. Feelings. 

2. Mill. 4. Peaches. 6. Doll. 



XV. — ADJECTIVE MODIFIERS: Synthesis. 

To a noun subject we may join — 

1. A single adjective : as, " Tall trees appear." 

2. Two or more adjectives, of which one modifies the noun directly, 
while the others modify the noun as already modified by the nearest 
adjective : as, "A mischievous little boy sat on the back seat." 

3. Two or more adjectives separately modifying the noun : as, " Kate's 
large, laughing, light-blue eyes danced in her head." 

Punctuation. — The following rule of punctuation applies to 
adjectives. 

Three or more adjectives (or two, if not joined by a conjunction) modi- 
fying a noun are separated by commas : as — 

1. This calm, resolute man. 

2. This cabn, cool, and rtsolutc man. 

3. This calm and resolute man. 



ADJECTIVE MODIFIERS. 31 



NOTES. 



I. When a noun has joined with it two or more adjectives which do 
not separately modify it, the adjectives should not be separated by the 
comma. Thus, in the sentence — 

" A mischievous little boy sat on the back seat " — 

"little" modifies "boy," "mischievous" modifies "little boy," "a" 
modifies " mischievous little boy." Hence, as these adjectives do uot 
■separately modify the noun, they are not separated by the comma. 
lie The adjective next to the noun is not followed by the comma. 



EXERCISE 14. 



Unite each group of statements into a single sentence, using 
all the adjectives as modifiers of the subject. 

Model. 

A boy ran away from school yesterday. 1 . , , 

^ ' ^ -^ = A cross, quarrelsome, lazy 

He was a cross bov. i ^ ^ ^ 

^ * , y boy ran away from school 

He was a quarrelsome boy. yesterday. 

He was a lazy boy. J 

1. The Himalayas extend across Asia. 
The Himalayas are lofty. 

The Himalayas are majestic. 
The Himalayas are snow-capped. 

2. A ship sailed yesterday to the East Indies. 
It was a large ship. 

It was a fioNe ship. 
It was a gallant ship. 

3. Mice ran after the farmer's wife. 
They were tJiree mice. 

They were blind mice. 



32 thp: sentence and its elements. [sec. ii 

4. Books are nice Christmas presents. 

It is preMy books that are nice Christmas presents. 
It is illustrated books that are nice Christmas presents. 
It is story books that are nice Christmas presents. 

5. A king named Alfred ruled over England a thousand years ago. 
He was a learned king. 

He was a valiant king. 
He was a mucli loved king. 

6. A song cheered the soldiers. 
It was a siceet song. 

It was a tender song. 
It was a homelike song 

Supply the comma where omitted in the punctuation of the 
adjectives in the following sentences.* 

1. A grand gloomy and peculiar drama was played 

2. A free patriotic liberty-loving people are hard to conquer 

3. Reserved and proud haughty and ambitious, how could he be 

beloved by the people ? 

4. Tell me the old old story. 

5. The sailor had a large strong hard and sunburned hand. 

6. The garden was filled with rare costly beautiful sweet-scented 

flowers. 

7. Jane had a short sensible well-written well-spelled and well- 

punctuated composition. 

8. The condor is the largest strongest swiftest and most tireless of 

birds of prey. 



XVI. — SUBJECT MODIFIED : By a Possessive Noun. 

" The girl has a book, and the girVs book is here." 
Explanation. — The noun "girl " is used as the subject of the 
verb "has." Rut the form "girl's" is not used as a subject: it 



* Thouf^h tilt' ad.jei'tives in these sentences are not in every instance modifiers nf 
the subjrct mum, thej' iikistrate equally well the rules for the punctuation of adjec- 
tives joined with the subject. 



SUBJECT MODIFIED. 



33 



is joined with the noun "book" to tell tohosc book we are 
speaking of. 

The form "girl's" is made from the form "girl" by adding 
the letter s with the mark called an apostrophe ( ' ) before it. 
This form of the noun is named the possessive case. 

Definition. — The possessive case is that form which a noun 
has in order to denote ownership or possession. 

Second Modifier. — The subject may be modified by a noun in 
the possessive case. 



NOTES. 

I. As a preparation for writing possessive forms in the exercises 
given below, the pupil should carefully read over the rules for forming 
the possessive case singular and plural.* (See page 89.) 

II. For practice, copy the following. 



SUBJECT FORM, OR CASE. 


POSSESSIVE FORM, 

Singular. 


OR CASE. 

Plural. 


lion 


lion's, 


lions' 


scholar 


scholar's, 


scholars' 


valley 


valley's, 


valleys' 


city 


city's , 


cities' 


wife 


wife's, 


wives' 


potato 


potato's, 


potatoes' 


fox 


fox's, 


foxes' 


calf 


calf's, 


calves' 


dwarf 


dwarf's, 


dwarfs' 


tooth 


tooth's, 


teeth's 


brooch 


brooch's, 


brooches' 


sheep 


sheep's. 


sheep's 


child 


child's, 


children's 



* Though, in the order of development, the consideration of the possessive case 
belongs properly under Section IV., where the full treatment will be found, it seems 
necessary for practical reasons that the mode of forming the possessive should here 
be taken up by anticipation. 



34 THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS. [SEC. IL 

EXERCISE 15 
a. 

Select the nouns in the 2''0ssessive form. 

1. John tore Henry's book. 2. The man's face is black. 3. I 
admire your father's house. 4. The horse's leg was broken. 
5. The cat scratched the boy's face. 6. Lend me your brother's 
knife. 7. Papa's horses fell down. 8. The dog's ears were 
cropped. 9. The earth's surface consists of land and water. 
10. We saw the lion's mane. 

b. 

Rewrite the expressions below, changing the italicized nouns 
into the 2'>ossesswc form. 

Model : " The bonnet of Mary.'''' Mary's bonnet. 

1. The bonnet of Mary. 2. The shoes of the children. 3. The 

house of 3£r. Jacob. 4. The playthings of the hahy. 5. The 

carriage of the general. 6. The lapdog of the lady. 7. The 

tail of the sheep. 8. The tails of the sheep (several). 9. The 
hoofs of the oxen. 

c. 

Write the following possessive singulars in the i->lural form. 

1. The horse's teeth. 2. The deer's horns. 3. The child's play- 
things. • 4. The hero's harp; the lover's lute. 5. A woman's 
dress. 6. The soldier's gun. 7. Our teacher's greatest de- 
sire. 8. The prince's favor. 9. The sparrow's nest. 10. The 
gentleman's umbrella. 



XVII. — POSSESSIVE MODIFIERS: Analysis. 

Analyze according to the model the following sentences. 

Model : " Our country's history is full of interest." 
This is a simple sentence. "History" is the simple subject: it is 



FOSSESSIVE MODIFIERS. 35 

modified by "our," and by "country's," a noun in the possessive case. 
"Is full of interest" is the predicate. 

1. The spider's web is a wonderful piece of work. 

2. The minstrel's task is done. 

3. The boy's bravery was rewarded. 

4. Ladies' shoes are sold here. 

5. The wolf's long howl was heard. 

6. Birds' nests attract boys. 

7o Longfellow's "Evangeline " is a beautiful poem. 



XVIII. — POSSESSIVE MODIFIERS: Synthesis. 

Unite each group of statements into a single sentence, using 
possessive modifiers of the subject. 

Model. 

The army melted away in Russia, j ^ Napoleon's mighty army melted 
It was the army of Napoleon. V ^^^^ .^ j^^^^.^^ 
It was a mighty army. ; 

1. The doll was stolen. 

It was the doll of the girl. 
It was a 'pretty doll. 
It was a wax doll. 

2. Deeds are not forgotten. 

The deeds of men are spoken of. 
The good deeds of men are spoken of. 

3. Courage freed Switzerland. 

It was the courage of William Tell. 
It was his patriotic courage. 

4. A footprint in the sand startled Robinson Crusoe. 
It was the footprint of a man. 

5. A web is a wonderful object. 
The web of a spider is spoken of. 



36 THE SENTENCK AND ITS ELEMENTS. [SEC. II. 

6. The roar was heard in the night. 
It was the roar of the hillow. 
It was a deep roar. 
It was a hoarse roar. 



XIX. — SUBJECT MODIFIED: By a Noun in Apposition. 

" William, the young blacksmith, shoes horses." 
Analysis. — What is the simple subject of this sentence ? 
What use has the word "blacksmith"? The word "black- 
smith" explains which "William " is meant. 

Explanation. — When a noun denoting the same person or 
thing as another noun is placed beside it to explain its meaning, 
the explanatory noun is said to be in apposition with the word 
which it explains. 

Definition. — A noun in apposition is a noun joined to another 
noun to explain it. 

Third Modifier. — The subject may be modified by a noun in 
apposition. 



EXERCISE 16. 

Select the nouns in apposition, and mention with what word 
each is in apposition. 

Model : The noun " father '' is in apposition with the noun " Washington." 

1. Washington, the father of his country, was our first President. 

2. The statesman Jefferson * wrote the Declaration of Independ- 

ence. 

* The iiouu in apposition generally follows the noun with which it is in apposition 
(called the principal term). But sometimes, as in this instance, the appositive 
conies first. To determine the principal term, inquire *' What is the name of the 
principal object (person or thing) spoken of 'i " 



APPOSITIVE MODIFIERS. 37 

3. Milton, tlie illustrious English poet, was blind. 

4. Next came Thomas, the boy who carries the mail. 

5. That faithful animal, the horse, is often abused. 

G. The Somerset, a phantom ship, was swinging at her moorings. 



XX. — APPOSITIVE MODIFIERS: Analysis. 
Analyze according to the model the following sentences. 

Model : " Howard, the distinguished philanthropist, was beloved by all.'"' 

This is a simple sentence. The simple subject is "Howard ;" it is 
modified by " philanthropist," a noun in apposition : "philanthropist" 
is modified by the adjectives "the" and "distinguished." The predi- 
cate is " was beloved by all." 

1. James Watt, the inventor of the steam engine, was born in 

Scotland. 

2. Socrates, the Greek philosopher, was poisoned. 

3. Peter the hermit preached the first crusade. 

4. Night, sable goddess, stretches her scepter. 

5. David the psalmist was King of Israel, 

6. That faithful animal, the dog, watches our houses. 



XXI. — APPOSITIVE MODIFIERS: Synthesis. 

I. A noun in apposition may itself be modified by other words : 
thus — 

" Warren, the gallant young hero, fell at Bunker Hill.'* 

The noun " hero " is in apposition with " Warren ; " at the same time 
the appositive noun is modified by the adjectives "the," "gallant," 
and "young." The whole appositive expression — "the gallant young 
hero" — is set off by commas from the other parts of the sentence. 

II. Punctuation. — Nouns in apposition, especially when modi- 
fied by other words, are set off from the other parts of the sentence 
by the comma. 



38 THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS. [SEC. II. 

NOTE. — The two nouns are not separated by the comma if both 
words have become so closely connected as to form really one name : 
as, "Paul the apostle,'' " Peter the hermit." 

III. Sentence Building. — The sentence — 

" Warren, the gallant young hero, fell at Bunker Hill " — 

may be separated into several distinct statements : thus — 

1. Warren fell at Bunker Hill. 

2. He was a hero. 

3. He was a young hero. 

4. He was a gallant hero. 

By the reverse process, the following statements may be com- 
bined into one sentence. 

Columbus was persecuted. I 

Columbus was a navigator. I = Columbus, a great Italian navigator, 

He was an Italian. \ ^^as persecuted. 

He was great. 



EXERCISE 17. 
a. 

Unite each group of statements into a simple sentence, as in 
the model. 

1. Sago is excellent for sick people and young children. 
It is a. food. 

It is a cJiea]) food. 

It is a notirishing food. 

2. Bryant wrote " Thanatopsis." 
He was a 'poet. 

He was an American poet. 
He was an illustrious poet. 



APPOSITIVE MODIFIERS. 39 



3. Benjamin Franklin learned liis trade. 
He was a jpMlosopher. 

He was a distinguished pliilosoplier. 

He learned liis trade in tlie office of liis brother. 

His brother was a 'printeT in Boston. 

4. David slew Goliath. 
David was the son of Jesse. 
Goliath was a Philistine. 

5. William the Conqueror defeated Harold. 
Harold was the Saxon king. 

6. The whale is found in the Arctic and Antarctic s 
It is the largest [mammal] of mammals. 

7. Coral is highly prized for ornaments. 

It is a secretion from the body of an animal. 
This animal is called a, polyp. 



Copy the following piece, drawing a line under each noun 
which is in apposition. 

THE BATTLE OF HASTINGS. 
The English, keeping side by side in a great mass, cared no more 
for the shower of Norman arrows than if they had been showers 
of Norman rain. When the Norman horsemen rode against them, 
with their battle-axes they cut men and horses down. The Nor- 
mans gave way. The English pressed forward. Duke William, 
the Norman commander, pretended to retreat. The eager English 
followed. Duke William's army turned again, and fell upon the 
English with great slaughter. The sun rose high, and sank ; 
and the battle still raged. Through all the wild October day the 
clash and din resounded in the air. In the red sunset and in the 
white moonlight, heaps upon heaps of dead men lay strewn all 
over the ground. Harold the Saxon king, wounded in the eye 
by an arrow, was nearly blind. His brothers were already killed. 
At length Harold, the king, received a mortal wound, and dropped. 
The English broke and fled. The Normans rallied, and the day 
was lost. — Dickens's Child's History of England. 



40 THE SKXTKNCK AND ITS ELEMENTS. [sEC. II. 

XXII. - SUBJECT MODIFIED: By a Phrase. 

1. A thing of beauty is a joy forever. 

2. Like a glowworm golden 

In a dell of clew. 

Analysis. — The expression '<of beauty" is used to modifv 
"thing." We might express the same idea by using the adjec- 
tive beautiful: "a beautiful thing," 

The expression "of dew" is used to modify the meaning of 
the word " dell ; " and •' dell of dew " signifies the same thing 
as dewy dell. 



Explanation. — In each of these cases we have a noun which 
is joined (or related) by a preposition to another word. An ex- 
pression of this kind is called a phrase. It forms a part, or 
element, of a sentence, just as if it were a single word. 

Definition I. — A phrase is a combination of related words form- 
ing an element of a sentence. 

Definition II. — A phrase which modifies the subject (or any 
noun) is called an adjective phrase. 

Fourth Modifier. — The subject may be modified by an adjective 
phrase. 

NOTE. — Many phrases consist of a preposition and a noun. Such 
phrases may frequently be changed into single words : thus — 

The man in armor = the armored man (adj.). 

Our cottage by the seaside = our seaside cottage (adj.). 

A man of note = a 7ioted man (adj.). 

A woman of distinction = a distinguished woman (adj.). 

A hat with three corners = a three-cornered hat (adj.). 



PHRASE MODIFIERS. 41 

EXERCISE 18. 



Change the italicized words into 2^hrases. 

1. It is pleasant to lie on afloicery bed. 

2. The army advanced hastily. 

3. Janny Lind sang sweetly. 

4. Sensible men sometimes differ in opinion. 

5. The professor delivered an historical lecture. 

6. There were no railroads then. 



Change the italicized phrases into single loords. 

1. A man of courage does not fear death. 

2. We sailed on the river by the light of the moon. 

3. The bear sprang in haste from his bed of grass. 

4. Learning is the eye of the mind. 

5. A settler /7'0?w Australia returned last week. 

6. People at this time live better than they ever did before. 

7. The old bucket of oak hangs in the well. 



XXIII. — PHRASE MODIFIERS: Analysis. 
Analyze the following sentences. 

Model : ' ' The house on the hill is burnt." 
This is a simple sentence. "House" is the simple subject: it is 
modified by "the," an adjective, and by "on the hill," an adjective 
phrase. " Is burnt " is the predicate. 



EXERCISE 19. 

1. The wings of the eagle are very strong. 

2. The study of history is useful. 

3. Roads in the country are often muddy. 



42 THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS. [SEC. 

4. Grapes from California are much esteemed. 

5. The man with the white coat has gone. 

6. The light of the sun nourishes plants. 

7. The bird in the bush sang sweetly. 



XXIV. —PREDICATE MODIFIED : By an Adverb. 

1. Alice plays nicely. 

2. Thomas walks liere. 

3. We will come soon. 

Analysis. — The word "nicely " modifies the meaning of the 
verb '' plays," by expressing lioio Alice plays. The word '' here " 
modifies the meaning of the verb ''walks," by expressing where 
Thomas walks ; the word "soon " modifies the meaning of the 
verb "will come," by expressing when we will come. 

Explanation. — It is often necessary to modify the meaning of 
the verb in the predicate by a word expressing how, when, or 
where. For this purpose we use the class of words called adverbs. 
(See definition of the adverb, page 9.) The words "nicely," 

"hastily," and "soon," are adverbs. 

First Modifier. — The predicate verb may be modified by an 
adverb. 



EXERCISE 20. 
a. 

Analyze the following sentences.* 

Model : " Charles was here yesterday. " This i^ simple sentence : " Charles " 



* At this stage of progress the analysis is to include the subject and its modifiers 
and the predicate verb with its adverbial modifiers. 



PREDICATE MODIFIED. 43 

is the subject ; " was here yesterday " is the predicate • the predicate verb " was " 
is modified by the adverbs "• here " and " yesterday." 

1. Charles was here yesterday. 

2. The wind blew terribly. 

3. We must win now, 

4. The girls laughed heartily. 

5. She seldom sees her brother. 

6. Oft have I heard of Lucy Gray. 

7. Slowly and sadly we laid him down. 

b. 

Modify each predicate verb by an adverb. 

Model : " Our fields produce abundantly.''^ 

1. Our fields produce 

2. Foxes run 

3 Your friend died ...... 

4. The exercise is written. 

5. Young people should rise 

6. We shall rest 

7. The cricket chirps 

8. The old soldier lies 

9. It is very hot 

10. The tables turned. 

11. Homer's Iliad has been read. 

12. Were you at Niagara ? 



XXV. — PREDICATE MODIFIED: Adverbial Phrase. 

1. A great man lives hei'e. 

2. A great man lives in this place. 

Analysis. — The word "here" is an adverb, and modifies the 
predicate verb "lives." The expression "in this place" is a 



44 THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS. [SEC. II. 

phrase, and has the same meaning as "here-" it modifies 
"lives," and hence is called an adverhial j^hrcise. 

Definition. — An adverbial phrase is a pbrase which modifies a 
verb.* 

Second Modifier. — The predicate verb may be modified by an 
adverbial phrase. 

NOTE. — An adverbial phrase is generally introduced by a preposi- 
tion : as, "in the street," ''through the woods." But in some phrases 
the preposition is not expressed: as, "the war lasted tea years'' 
(= during ten years) ; " we walked thirty miles " (= a distcnice of thirty 
miles). Every such expression, when it has the meaning of an adverb, 
is an adverbial phrase. 



EXERCISE 21. 
a. 

Change the italicized adverbs into adverbial phrases. 

Model : "The army advanced vaj^u?/?/." The army advanced t<'/7/< rrtj>ifit7y. 

1. The army advanced o'apidly. 

2. The lady spoke calmly. 

3. Caesar returned triumphantly. 

4. Kate sings siceetly. 

5. The child followed the good man cheerfully 

6. An old elm grew \iQre formerly 

7. That man expresses himself correctly. 

8. Take her up tenderly. 

9. Sorrowfully our parents see our faults. 

10. Joyfully we greet the opening flowers of spring. 

1^^ In the foregoing sentences, state what verb each phraso 
modifies. 

* It will hei-eaf ter be seen that an adverbial phrase may also modify an adjective 
or another adverb. 



PflEDICATE MODIFIED, 45 



Make sentences with the following adverhial phrases. 

Model : "• In his stall." The horse stands in his stall. 

In liis stall ; on the table ; to the church ; into the store ; till to- 
morrow ; among the corn ; before the glass ; across the bridge ; 
over the river ; all the day ; from every opening flower ; after the 
storm ; to his long home ; near the fire ; since yesterday ; above 
the water ; under a spreading chestnut tree. 



In the following sentences, modify the predicate verbs by 
supplying adverbial phrases expressing time. 

Model : " The meeting begins — " The meeting begins at seven o'clock, 

1. The meeting begins 

2. I shall go to school 

3. America was discovered 

4. The stars shine 

5. The battle lasted 

6. Congress meets 

7. We have a holiday 

d. 

In the following sentences, modify the predicate verbs by 
supplying adverbial phrases expressing ^9 /«ce. 

Model : " I planted the flowers . . " J planted the flowers in the garden. 

1, I planted the flowers 

3. Henry is studying 

3. Napoleon died 

4. Tea is brought 

5. Columbus sailed 

6. Cotton is grown 

7. My grandfather resides . . . , . , 



46 THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS. [sEC. 



e. 

In the following sentences, modify the predicate verbs by 
supplying adverbial phrases expressing manner, cause, or hy 
ivliom or what. 

Model : " She slugs . . '' She sings like a nicjhthvjale. 

" Printing was invented ''' Printing was invented by Gutenberg. 

1. She sings 

2. Printing was invented 

3. The water rushed 

4. Goliath was killed 

5. He made his fortune 

6. That mountain is high. 

7. The steamboat was invented 

8. The lady fainted 



I 



XXVI. — PREDICATE MODIFIED : Analysis. 

Analyze the following sentences. 

jNlODEL : '' Many a time, on holidays, we rambled through the woods." 

This is a simple sentence. " We " is the subject ; " rambled " is the 
predicate verb : the predicate verb is modified by the adverbial phrases 
*' man)' a time," " on holidays," and " through the woods." 



EXERCISE 22. 

1. Many a time, on holidays, we rambled through the woods. 

2. There he lived in days of yore. 

3. The sun rises in the east, and sets in the west. 

4. The lad leaped from the boat into the river. 

5. The (t reeks took Troy by stratagem. 

6. The moon was reflected in the lake. 

7. Columbus sailed from Palos in 1492. 

8. The village smithy stands under a spreading chestnut tree. 
0. We came on the trail of the Indians in the evening. 

10. She perished 'mid Italian flowers. 



PREDICATE MODIFIED. 'f7 

XXVII. — PREDICATE MODIFIED : Synthesis. 

I. Punctuation. — The following rules of punctuation apply to 
adverbs and adverbial phrases. 

Rule I. — Two or more adverbs or adverbial phrases in a series are 
separated by commas : as — 

1. Sloicly, sadly, we laid him down. 

2. He reads rapidly, fluently, and correctly. 

3. He goes from grave to gay, from lively to severe. 

4. I went from New York, through Liverpool, to Bombay, by way 

of Suez. 

NOTE. — Two adverbs or adverbial phrases joined by a conjunction 
are not separated by commas: as, " Slotcly and sadly we laid him 
down." 

Rule II. — An adverbial phrase at the beginning of a sentence, or 
otherwise out of its natural order, is generally set off by the comma : as — 

1. Over the great plains, the buffalo still roams. 

2. Columbus, in 1493, returned from his voyage to the West Indies. 

NOTE. — In what is called the " natural order" of a sentence, the 
subject comes first, the predicate verb next, and then follow all the ad- 
verbial modifiers. But this is by no means the most pleasing order. 
Good writers, when they employ two or more adverbial phrases in the 
same sentence, distribute them in such a way as to make an agreeable, 
harmonious whole. It is when phrases are thus out of their natural 
order, and in their literary order, that the rule for the comma applies. 

II. Sentence Building. — In the following exercise, several 
separate statements, each containing a phrase, are to be com- 
bined into a single simple sentence : thus — 

L Columbus returned from his voj'age. 
Separate Statements . . - He returned from his voyage to the West Indies. 

( He retui-ned in 1493. 
Combined.— Columbus returned froua his voyage to the West Indies in 1493. 

In this sentence there are three phrases, — (1) ''from his voy- 



48 THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS. [SEC. II. 

age," (2) "to the West Indies," (3) "in 1493," — and they are 
all brought together in the predicate. The sentence would be 
more agreeable if arranged thus — 

In 1493 Columbus returned from his voyage to the West Indies. 
Or, 

Columbus, in 1493, returned from his voyage to the West Indies. 

Direction. — Several phrases used in the same sentence should 
be distributed in such a way as to make the sentence most agree- 
able to the ear. 



EXERCISE 23. 

Combine as in the model. 

1. The teacher of our academy gave prizes. 
He gave them on exhibition day. 

He gave them for scholarship. 

2. Napoleon invaded Russia. 

He invaded it in the winter of 1812. 
He invaded it icith a great army. 

3. Gold was discovered. 

It was discovered in California. 
It was discovered in the year 1849, 

4. Close at hand runs the highway. 
It runs to the little railroad depot. 
The depot is in the valley. 

5. The first Congress met. 
It met at Philadelphia. 
It met in the year 1774. 

6. The battle began. 

It began the next morning. 

It began at daybreak. 

It began in terrible earnest. 



TREDICATE WITH OBJECT. 49 



7. Columbus landed. 

He landed early neott morning. 
He landed /ro7?^ his vessel. 

8. The swallows built tlieir nests. 
Tills was in the siwingtime. 

They built them under the eaves of the ham. 
The nests were built in a long row. 



XXVIII. — PREDICATE WITH OBJECT. 

1. Carpenters build houses. 

2. The hunter shot a tear. 

3. I teach him, and he teaches me. 

Analysis. — The noun 'Oiouses " denotes luliat carpenters build ; 
the noun "bear" names vjhat the hunter shot. The pronoun 
•'him" denotes lohom I teach, and the pronoun "me" denotes 
luhom he teaches. 

Explanation. — In such sentences as "birds fly," "fishes 
swim," the verbs " fly " and " swim " — when used with a subject, 
as " birds," '' fishes " — express a complete meaning : they make 
complete statements. But when we say — 



Columbus discovered 

Watt invented 

no complete statement is made. We wait to be told of some 
thing or object which Columbus discovered, or Watt invented. 

A word that is used to complete the meaning of a verb denot- 
ing action is called the object of the verb. In the examples at 
the beginning of this lesson, "houses" is the object of "build," 
"bear" is the object of " shot," "him " is the object of "teach," 
and "me" is the object of "teaches." 

A verb that requires an object in order to make a complete 
statement is called a transitive verb. 



THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS?.' 



[sec. it. 



Definition I. — A transitive verb is one that denotes an action 
terminating on some object. 

Definition II. — The object of a transitive verb is the word or 
words used to complete the statement made by the verb. 



EXERCISE 24. 
a. 

Supply objects after the following transitive verbs. 

1. Indians bunt 

2. The doctor cures 

3. Whitney invented 

4. The frost kills 

5. Rain refreshes 

6. William Cullen Bryant wrote 

b. 

Make sentences by supplying a verb after each subject, and 
then selecting from the list a suitable object. 



Model : "The 


musician " 


The musician 


plays 


the viol 


n. 


Subjects. 






Objects. 




The musician. 


A baby. 


recitation. 






corn. 


The carpenter. 


A robin. 


rattle. 






violin. 


The doctor. 


A horse. 


nest. 






play. 


The teacher. 


A boy. 


patients. 






houses. 



1. Write a sentence telling what you saw at the museum. 

3. Write a sentence telling several things that the carpenter makes. 

3. Write a sentence telling three things that your State pwducea. 

4. Write a sentence naming four things that you study 

5. Write a sentence specifying several objects that the hardware 

merchant selh. 

6. Write a sentence naming several books that you have read. 

^^ Underline all the o^ect-'i. 



PREDICATE WITH OBJECT. 51 

XXIX. — PREDICATE WITH OBJECT : Analysis. 
Analyze the following sentences. 

Model : " The hunter shot a bear." 

This is a simple sentence. " Tlie hunter " is tlie subject ; "shot a 
bear" is the predicate: "shot"' is the predicate verb, and "bear" 
is the object. 

1. Carpenters build houses. 

2. The Egyptians embalmed bodies. 

3. The minister preached a sermon. 

4. Music soothes the mind. 

5. James has written a letter. 

6. Fools despise knowledge. 

7. Physicians prescribe medicines. 

8. Patriots love their country. 

9. Education improves the mind. 
10. Teachers hear recitations. 



XXX.— PREDICATE WITH OBJECT: Synthesis. 

I. Punctuation. — Rule. Three or more objects of the same verb (or 
two if not connected by a conjunction) are separated by commas : as — 

1. Our State produces wheat, corn, potatoes, and fruit. 

2. Our State produces peaches and pears. 

II. Sentence Building. — Several statements in which the same 
verb is used, but with different objects, may be combined into a 
single sentence by using the verb only once : thus — 

Milton wrote " Paradise Lost." ) = Milton wrote "Paradise 

Milton wrote " Paradise Regained." > Lost," "Paradise Regained," 
Milton wrote several otJoer poems. ) and several other poems. 



52 THE SENTKNCK AN]) ITS KLKMKXTS. [SEC. II. 

EXERCISE 25. 
Combine the statements into single sentences, as in the model. 

1. We caught a pickerel. 
We caught three trout. 
We caught /<9Mr hluefish. 

2. Railroads transport persons. 
Railroads transport cattle. 
Railroads transport (juods. 

3. Mary studies geography. 
Mary studies history. 
Mary studies botany. 
Mary studies draicing. 

4. Alfred has a dog. 
Alfred has two rabbits. 
Alfred has six pigeons. 
Alfred has several other pets. 

5. In a druggist's store you may find rhubarb. 
In a druggist's store you may find calomel. 
In a druggist's store you may find senna. 

In a druggist's store you may find ipecacimnha. 

In a druggist's store you may find various other drugs. 

6. Dickens wrote "The Pickwick Papers." 
Dickens wrote " Oliver Tityist.'" 
Dickens wrote " Dombey and Son." 
Dickens wrote "A Tale of Tim Cities." 
Dickens wrote many other novels. 



XXXI. —PREDICATE ADJECTIVE AND NOMINATIVE. 

1, Gold is yclloic. Gold is a metal. 

2. Alfred was king. Jefferson was a statesman. 
?). The boy becomes a man. 

Analysis. — T)o the words "Gold is .,.." make a complete 
statement V They do not. We must supply some word, as 



PREDICATE ADJECTIVE AND NOMINATIVE. 53 

"yellow," or "metal," telling tohat gold is. In like manner the 
words "Alfred was. . . .," "Jefferson was. . . .," and " The boy 
becomes. . . .," make no statement until we have completed the 
predicate by using words to denote luhat Alfred and Jefferson 
ivere^ and what the boy becomes. 

Explanation. — The verbs "is," "was," and "becomes," are 
not transitive verbs, because they do not express action : hence 
the words used with these verbs to complete the statement are 
not called objects. 

An adjective used to complete the sense of a verb not express- 
ing action is called a ^predicate adjective., and a noun used in the 
same way is called a ^predicate nominative. 

Definition I. — A predicate adjective is an adjective used to 
complete the sense of a predicate verb. 

Definition II. — A predicate nominative is a noun (or pronoun) 
used to complete the sense of a predicate verb. 

NOTE. — There are not many verbs of the kind spoken of in this 
lesson. The one most used is the verb to he, which has various forms, 
■ — is, am, are, teas, loere, liave been, etc. Other verbs of this class are ■ — 

become as, "Mary became queen." 

feel.. as, "Velvet feels smootli," 

look as, " The baby looks happy." 

seem as, " Success seems secure.'" 

smell as, " The rose ^m.el\^ fragrant." 

taste as, " Vinegar tastes sour." 



EXERCISE 26. 



Select the p)i^^dicate adjectives and the predicate nominatives. 

1. That mountain is high. 3. Oxygen is a gas. 

2. Contented persons are happy. 4. You have been sick. 



54 



THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS. 



[« 



5. London is a city. 

6. David became king. 

7. Molasses is a liquid. 

8. The sirup tastes sweet. 



9. The boy seemed dull. 

10. The boy was dull. 

11. The boy was a dunce. 

12. Emily felt proud. 



Fill out the blanks first by an adjective complement, then by 
a noun complement. AVhen done, unite the two statements into 
one sentence. 

Model : " Iron is " 



1. 

2. 


Iron is 
Iron is 
Iron is 

Iron is 

Sugar is 

Paul Jones was . 
Clarissa will be . 
The sky is 


hard. 
a metal. 
a hard n, 


letal. 


[Adjective.] 
[Nominative.] 
[Sentences united.] 

6. The moon is 

7. Diamonds are 

8. James has been 


4 




9. This church is 


5. 




10. Franklin was 



XXXII. — PREDICATE WITH COMPLEMENT: Analysis. 

Analyze the following sentences. 

Model : L " All men are mortal.'" 



All men" is the subject, "are mortal" 
predicate verb, and "mortal" is the 



This is a simple sentence. ' 
is the predicate: "are" is th* 
predicate adjective. 

2, "Frogs are animals.'" 

This is a simple sentence. " Frogs " is the subject, "are animals" 
is the predicate: "are" is the predicate verb, and "animals" is ihe 
predicate nominative. 

1. Raphael was an artist. 

2. The eye is the organ of sight. 

3. The Romans were warlike. 

4. We are wrong. 



PREDICATE WITH COMPLEMENT. 55 



5. The whale is a mammal. 

6. The stars are distant. 

7. Temperance is a virtue. 

8. Tadpoles become frogs. 

9. A chrysalis becomes a butterfly. 

10. The children seem happy. 

11. This plum tastes acrid. 

12. An owl looks wise. 

13. A church is an edifice. 



I. A sentence is a combination of words expressing a com- 
plete thought. 

II. The subject represents that of which something is stated. 

III. The predicate tells what is stated of the subject. 

IV. A simple sentence is one that contains but one subject 
and one predicate. 

V. An adjunct, or modifier, is a word or words added to 
another word to modify its meaning, 

YI. The simple subject may be modified by — 

1. An adjective: as, "5W^M stars twinkle." 

2. A possessive noun : as, " The boy's bravery was rewarded." 

3. A noun in apposition : as, " Milton the poet was blind." 

4. An adjective phrase : as, " The study of history is useful." 

VII. The predicate verb may be modified by — 

1. An adverb : as, ''Th-e f^vehw.vnshrightly." 

2. An adverbial phrase : as, " Columbus sailed /r<9»z Palos." 

VIII. A verb that does not express a complete statement may 
be completed by — 

1. An object : as, " Colnmhua discovered Ajnerica." 

2. A predicate adjective : as, " Gold is yellow." 

3. A predicate nominative : as, " Gold is a metal." 



THE SENTENCE ANJ) IT.=i ELEMENTS. [sEC. 

REVIEW EXERCISE. 



Combine each of the following sets of statements into a well 
constructed simple sentence. Give the simjjle sul)ject and pred- 
icate, and mention the modifiers of each. 

1. We skated. 

It was in the winter evenings. 

The evenings were cold. 

They were frosty. 

It was on the mill pond. 

The mill pond was near our father's house. 

2. A boy threatened to eat me. 

It was during my first day at school. 
He was a big boy. 
He had a wide mouth. 
He had large teeth. 

3. The schoolhouse stood on a hill. 
The schoolhouse was old. 

It was red-colored. 

It was shabby. 

The hill was bleak. 

It was cold. 

It was destitute of trees. 

4. An Italian mariner made his appearance. 

This was in the last quarter of tlie fifteenth century. 

He was a citizen of Genoa. 

He made his appearance at various European courts. 

5. A cook made his appearance. 
He was fat. 

He was French. 

He appeared on deck. 

It was soon after breakfast. 



REVIEW EXERCISE. 67 

6. The beaver constructs [something]. 
It is his house that he constructs. 
He constructs it with great skill. 
He constructs it before winter. 

7. Leonidas died. 
He was a king. 

He was king of Sparta. 
He died like a hero. 
He died at Thermopylae. 
Thermopyl^ is in Greece. 

8. The boy wrote. 

He was a good boy. 

He wrote a letter. 

He wrote to his father. 

He wrote from school. 

He wrote on his birthday. 

It was a long letter. 

He wrote it early in the morning. 

He wrote it before breakfast, 

9. James Watt died in 1819. 

He was the great improver of the steam engine. 

He died at Heathfield. 

He died at the age of eighty -four. 

10. Washington gained a victory. 

He was commander in chief of the American army. 

The victory was decisive. 

It was gained over the British. 

The battle was fought at Trenton. 

Trenton is in the State of New Jersey. 

This took place in 1776. 

b. 

1. "Write a simple sentence, with the subject modified by two 

adjectives. 

2. Write a simple sentence, with the subject modified by a 

possessive noun and an adjective. 



58 THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS. [SEC. II. 

3. "Write a simple sentence, with the subject modified by a 

noun in apposition. 

4. Write a simple sentence, with the subject modified by 

two adjectives and one adjective phrase. 

5. Write a simple sentence, with the subject modified by a 

possessive noun, an adjective, and a phrase. 

6. Write a simple sentence, with the predicate verb modified 

by three adverbs. 

7. Write a simple sentence, with the predicate verb modified 

by two adverbial phrases. 

8. Write a simple sentence, with the subject modified by an 

adjective phrase, and the predicate verb by an adver- 
bial phrase. 

9. Write a simple sentence, with the predicate verb com- 

pleted by an object. 
10. Write a simple sentence, with the predicate verb com- 
pleted by a predicate adjective, and another by a predi- 
cate nominative. 



COMPOSITION EXERCISES, 
a. 

Write an abstract from memory after reading the following piece. 
ANECDOTE OF DANIEL WEBSTER. 
When Daniel entered Phillips Academy, at Exeter, N.H., be was 
an awkward country boy, and was placed at the foot of the low- 
est class. The higher-class boys were inclined to make fun of 
the diflBdent lad clad in homespun ; but Daniel, taking little 
notice of this treatment, applied himself to study, and soon rose 
to the head of his class. One day the teacher said aloud in 
school, "Daniel Webster, take your books and stand up, sir!" 
Daniel obeyed; and the kind old man continued, " Leave the 
room, and go into a higher class. — Boys, say good-by to him, for 
you will never overtake him." They never did overtake him. 
He went through college, became a distinguished lawyer and 
orator, a United States senator, and the great expounder of the 
American Constitution. 



COMFOSITIOX EXERCISES. 59 

b. 

Write a composition on "Squirrels," paying attention to the 
following points. 

1. What kinds of squirrels. 

2. Where they live. 
3 How they live. 

4. What they eat. 

5. How caught or killed, 

6. An anecdote, or an account of a squirrel hunt. 

C. 

Write from memory any of the following stories. 

1. Little Red Riding-hood. 

2. Cinderella. 

3. Robinson Crusoe and his goats. 

d. 

Write short compositions on any of the following subjects. 

METALS AND MINERALS 
Outline : Where found ; how mined or quarried ; qualities ; uses. 
1. Iron. 4. Copper. 7. Marble. 

3. Gold. 5. Lead. 8. Coal. 

3. Silver. 6. Quicksilver. 9. Granite. 

TREES. 
Outline : Where found ; size ; height ; fohage ; varieties ; qualities ; uses. 

1. The maple. 4. The birch. 7. The pine. 

2. The elm. 5. The chestnut. 8. The hickory. 

3. The beech. 6. The oak. 9. The apple. 

Write short descriptions of the process of making such of the 
following articles as are manufactured in or near your home. 

MANUFACTURED ARTICLES. 

1. Shoes. 3. Brick. 5. Cotton cloth. 

2. Boots. 4. Horseshoes. 6. Woolens. 



SECTION III. 

SUBDIVISION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 



XXXIII. — THE NOUN: Proper. 

Select from the following examples all the nouns that are the 
names ot 2)articular 2^ersonSj 2^^^^^^j or things. 

Model : " Walter visited New York, and saw the Central Park and the Hudson 
River." 

" Walter" is the name of a particular person ; " New York " is the 
name of a particular place ; " Central Park " is the name of a particu- 
lar object ; " Hudson River" is the name of a particular river. 

Examples. — 1. Thomaslent his knife to John. 2. Mary gave Emma 
a rose. 3. Socrates died like a philosopher. 4. Watt and Fulton were 
inventors. 5. New Orleans is in Louisiana. 6. Texas is the largest 
State. 7. China is the most populous country in the world. 8. Jeru- 
salem, my happy home ! 9. Carlo is a good dog. 10. The Rhine is 
not so large a river as the Mississippi. 11. The Alps are tbe highest 
mountains in Europe. 12. We shall have a holiday on Thursday be- 
cause it is the Fourth of July. 

Explanation. — The name of a particular person, place, or 
thing, is an individual or special name. It does not belong to the 
person, place, or thing by nature, but is given to the person, 
place, or thing, to distinguish that one from others of the same 
kind. 

In grammar such names are called proper nouns. 

(60) 



THE NOUN. 61 

Definition. — A proper noun is a special or individual name. 

Capitals. — Rule. A proper noun should always begin with 
a capital letter. 

NOTE. — A name made up of two or more words is to be taken as 
one proper noun : thus. New Orleans, Fourth of July, John Quincy 
Adams, Rocky Mountains, Peter the Great, Washington County, etc. 



XXXIV.— THE NOUN: Common. 

Select from the following examples all the nouns which are 
the names of all objects of the same class or hind. 

Model : "The cat is a domestic animal.'" 

" Cat" is a name denoting every individual of the cat kind; "ani- 
mal " is a name applied io all living creatures. 

Examples. — 1. The bud shoots forth. 2. The oak is one of the 
largest trees in the forest. 3. Ships spread their sails. 4. Cows eat 
grass, and give us milk. 5. Birds build nests. 6. The door of the 
schoolroom was open. 7. A lady stood before the window. 8. The 
clouds are drifting across the sky. 9. Who threw this stone over the 
wall? 10. The water in the old well is clear. 11. Great changes have 
taken place. 12. Sail on, proud ship ! 

Explanation. — Many names are not individual or special 
names, but names of every one of a class or kind. Thus hoy is 
not a name denoting only a particular one : it belongs to all boys 
in common, and is a general name, or class name, which denotes 
every individual belonging to the boy kind. 

Such names are called common nouns. 

r 

Definition. — A common noun is a general or class name. 

NOTE,— A collective noun is a noun denoting a collection of indi- 
viduals considered as forming one whole or body : thus, army, fleet, 
jury, committee, etc. 



62 SUBDIVISION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. [SEC. III. 

XXXV. — THE NOUN: Abstract. 

Select from the following examples all the nouns which are 
the names of qualities or actions. 

Model: " wisdom is to be sought for. Running is good exercise.'' 

" Wisdom " is the name of a quality ; " running" is the name of an 
action. 

Examples. — 1. The whiteness of this paper is remarkable. 2. Wash- 
ington's goodness was known by all. 3. His firmness, sagacity, and 
prudence saved the country. 4. Writing is useful. 5. Her beauty 
made me glad. 6. Walking is healthful. 7. Always speak the truth. 
8. We should observe moderation in all things. Alas for the rarity 
of Christian charity ! 10. Bathing, diving, swimming, riding, dancing, 
singing, are names of actions. 

Explanation. — Some nouns are the names, not of things, but 
of qualities belonging to a number of things. These qualities 
we cannot perceive by the senses ; but we can think of them, and 
speak about them. Thus many things are stueet ; and thinking 
about this quality, apart from the things themselves, we name it 
sweetness. 

These names of qualities are called abstract noitns, because we 
consider the quality apart from the things themselves. 

Names of actions are a kind of abstract noun. 

Definition. — An abstract noun is the name of some quality or 
action. 

NOTE. — Most abstract nouns of quality are formed from adjectives : 
thus — 

ADJECTIVES. ABSTRACT NOUNS. 

good goodness 

pure purity 

temperate temperance 

just justice 

splendid splendor 

deep depth 



REVIEW OF NOUNS. 63 

XXXVI. -REVIEW OF NOUNS. 

There are three subdivisions of nouns : — 

I. Proper. II. Common, III. Abstract. 

I. A proper noun is a special or individual name. 
II. A common noun is a general or class name, 
III. An abstract noun is the name of some quality or action. 



EXERCISE 27. 

a. 

In the following sentences, tell the class to which each noun 
belongs. 

Model : " Napoleon praised the bravery of Ms soldiers.'" 

Napoleon is a proper noun, because it is a special or individual name. 

bravery is an abstract noun, because it is the name of a quality. 

soldiers is a common noun, because it is a class name. 

1. ^Napoleon praised the bravery of his soldiers. 

2. Our teacher commended the neatness of our writing. 

3. Balboa discovered the Pacific Ocean. 

4. Amsterdam, like Stockholm and Venice, is built on wooden 

piles driven to a great depth into the ground. 

5. My pony is named Peggy. 

6. The White Mountains are visited by many tourists. 

7. Do you swear to tell the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but 

the truth? 

8. Alas ! poor Yorick : I knew him, Horatio. 

9. A photograph is a picture made by the light of the sun. 

10. Alexander had a horse named Bucephalus. 

11. Many rivers west of the Rocky Mountains flow into the Pacific 

Ocean. 

12. Greece, though a famous country, is only about one half the size 

of New York State. 

13. Hippopotamuses, rhinoceroses, and gnus are found in Africa. 



64 



SUBDIVISION OP THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 



L« 



14. Scaling mountain peaks is a favorite summer amusement. 

15. Warren was noted for the sweetness of his disposition. 

16. Knowledge is power, and the pen is mightier than the sword. 

17. From my study I see in the lamplight, 
Descending the broad hall stair, 
Grave Alice, and laughing Allegra, 
And Edith with golden hair. 

Do you think, O blue-eyed banditti I 
Because you have scaled the wall, 

Such an old mustache as I am 
Is not a match for you all ? 

b. 

Rule slates or paper, and write the nouns in the previous 
exercise according to this model 



PROPER, 


COMMON. 


ABSTRACT. 


Napoleon 


soldiers 
teacher 


bravery 
neatness 
writing 



XXXVII.— THE NOUN: Constructive Exercises. 



a. 

Use a common noun (with a or an) as predicate nominative. 
Model : " Columbus was a discoverer.'''' 

1. Columbus was 5. Daniel Webster was 

2. Shakespeare was 6. Julius Caesar was 

3. Robert Fulton was 7. Dickens was 

4. Florence Nightingale was 8. Mrs. Hemans was 

b. 

Write a sentence upon each of the following subjects by stat- 
ing from what country each of the articles named is obtained. 



THE PRONOUN. 65 

' Draw one line under each common noun, and two lines 
under each proper noun. 

1. Tea. 4. Gutta-percha. 7. Raisins. 10. Bananas. 

2. Coffee. 5. Ostrich plumes. 8. Dates. 11. Indigo. 

3. Ivory. 6. Olive oil. 9. Wine. 12. Pineapples. 

C. 

Write, in the form of a letter addressed to your teacher, a 
short account of yourself by answering the following questions. 

Where do you reside ? [Name of city (or town), county, and state.] 
What is your name ? [Giving real name.] What is your age? 

Model. 

'Jeai G/^m ^/eeiy^/e: 
^no0. G^y^ name ^ (bmt^y' Q^aiM^/ut, ana Q/ 



a7n ^en 'ueaid' o/ aae. 



loaid- ^iu^ 



S?7tc^ Q^ailnJa/. 



XXXVIII. — THE PRONOUN: Personal. 

Select from the following examples all the words that are used 
for the name of the j)erson speaking or spoken to, or that stand for 
nouns. 

Model : l. ''I am glad that you have come." 2. "Frank likes his dog, and it 
likes him." 

The word " I " is used for the name of the person speaking ; the word 
"you" is used for the name of the person spoken to; the word "it" 
stands for the noun "dog;" the word "him" stands for the noun 
"Frank." 



66 SUBDIVISION OF THE PARTS OF SrEFICII. [SEC. III. 

Examples. — 1. I come to bury Csesar, not to praise him. 2. I hope, 
madam, you find yourself better this morning. 3. John spoke to Ann : 
he says she will come when she has found the book he wants. 4. The 
boy saw the mouse as it ran across the floor. 5. Have you had your 
breakfast ? 6. The children are coming home from school, and they 
look in at the open door. 7. I help you, but you do not help me. 8. 
Charles went to Paris with his mother, and he came back without her. 
9. The mountain was higher than we thought it to be. 

10. I come to speak to you of what he wish'd — 
Enoch, your husband : I have ever said 
You chose the best among us — a strong man ; 
For where he fixed his heart he set his hand 
To do the thing he w^illed, and bore it through. 

Explanation. — The pronoun used by a speaker to denote him- 
self is called, in grammar, the pronoun of the first person. It is 
used because it would be very awkward for one to speak his own 
name every time he had to make a statement about himself. 

The pronoun which we use for the name of the person we are 
addressing is called the pronoun of the second ijerson. It is used 
because it would be very tedious to call persons by their proper 
name every time we address them. Besides, it often happens that 
we do not know the name of the person to whom we are speaking. 

Three pronouns — Ae, she, and it — are used instead of nouns 
which we have already used : by so doing we avoid the un- 
pleasant effect of repeating the same word. These are called 
pronouns of the third person. 

These pronouns, since they have special forms to denote the 
speaker, the person spoken to, and the person or thing spoken of, 
are called personal pronouns. 

Definition. — A personal pronoun is one that shows by its form 
whether it is of the first, second, or third person. 



THE PRONOUN. 67 

. NOTE. — The principal pronouns are : 

I denoting the speaker. 

We denoting the speaker along with others. 

You denoting one or more persons spoken to. 

He ^ 

She >•.... denoting the person or thing spoken of. 

It ) 

They denoting the persons or things spoken of. 

The personal pronoun "I" should always be written as a capital 
letter. 



XXXIX. — THE PRONOUN: Relative. 

Select from the following examples all those pronouns that 
relate to a word (noun or pronoun) going before. 

Model : "The man who sold me the horse that was blind will receive the 
reward which he merits." 

The pronoun "who" relates to the noun "man;" the pronoun 
" that" relates to the noun " horse ; " the pronoun " which " relates to 
the noun "reward." 

Examples. — 1. This is the lady who called on you. 2. I have lost 
the book which I bought. 3. London, which is situated on the Thames, 
is the capital of Great Britain. 4. I have seen the largest lion that was 
ever brought to this country. 5. I know what you wish. 6. Are 
those the dogs which your father had with him ? 7. Those who love 
mercy shall receive mercy. 8. I who speak to you am the man that 
did the deed. 9. You who are so boastful should give some evidence 
of your ability. 10. The boy and the dog that you saw passed on. 
11. I do not know which of you to invite. 12. It is the mind that 
makes the body rich. 13. The Indians lived in wigwams, which they 
made of bark, or the skins of animals. 14. Solomon was the wisest 
man that ever lived. 

15. High on a throne of royal state, which far 
Outshone the wealth of Ormus or of Ind, 
Satan exalted sat. 



68 SUBDIVISION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. [SEC. III. 

Explanation. — Some pronouns not only stand for nouns, but 
also connect statements. Thus, in the sentence " We love people 
who love us," the pronoun " who " stands for the noun '' people," 
and at the same time connects the statements " we love people " 
and "love us." 

Since these pronouns carry our mind back to a noun going 
before, they are called relative pronouns ; and the noun to which 
they refer is called the antecedent (Antecede?i t means f/oi?ig before.) 

Definition I. — A relative pronoun is one that refers to a pre- 
ceding noun or pronoun, and connects two statements in a sentence. 

Definition II. — The antecedent of a relative is the noun or 
pronoun represented by the relative. 

NOTE. — The relative pronouns are w7io, ichicli, what, that. 



XL. — THE PRONOUN : Interrogative. 

Select from the following examples the pronouns which are 
used in asking questions. 

Model : " Who did it ? Which did you see ? What shall I say ? " 
The words "who," " which," and " what," are used in asking ques- 
tions. 

Examples. — 1. Who comes here? 2. Who killed the deer? 3. 
Which of you did that? 4. What is the meaning of the word "inter- 
rogative"? 5. To whom did you offer the present? 6. What's this? 
7. Which of tlie two do you mean? 8. Who comes here? 9. What 
have you to say ? 

Definition. — An interrogative pronoun is a pronoun used in 
asking a question. The interrogative pronouns are who, which, 
and WHAT. 



REVIEW OF PRONOUNS, 



69 



XLI. — REVIEW OF PRONOUNS, 

There are three subdivisions of pronouns : — 

I, Personal. II. Relative. III. Interrogative. 

I. A personal pronoun is one that shows by its form whether 
it is of the first, second, or third person. 

II. A relative pronoun is one that refers to a preceding noun 
or pronoun, and connects two statements in a sentence. 

III. An interrogative pronoun is a pronoun used in asking a 
question. The interrogative pronouns are ivho, which, and lohat. 



EXERCISE 28 

a. 

In the following sentences, tell the class to which each pronoun 
belongs. 

1. I have just received the picture which you sent me. 2. Who 
has been in this room. 3. The man who was here yesterday. 
4. What shall I say to him, and what shall I do ? 5. Fulton, 
who built the first steamboat, was an American. 6. This is 
the man of whom you spoke. 7. When will they make us a 
visit ? 8. Who shouts treason ? Let him die 9. Thou hast 
all seasons for thine own, Death ! 10. We have just recited 
a geography lesson. 11. He says that she is a better scholar 
than you. 12. What sought they thus afar? 13. They sought 
a faith's pure shrine. 

14. Dear little blossoms down under the snow, 
You must be weary of winter, I know. 



Rule slates or paper, and write the pronouns in the previous 
exercise according to this model. 



PERSONAL. 


RELATIVE. 


INTERROGATIVE. 


I 

you 
me 


which 


who? 



70 SUBBIVISION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. [SEC. 111. 



Supply suitable pronouns, and tell the class to which each be- 
longs. 

1. John says knows the boy stole the apple. 

2. Do .... remember the place where .... met, long, long ago ? 

3. Tell me .... of the books ... want, and .... shall have .... 
4 was the first President of the United States ? 

5 and could not learn was there. 

6. James has lost the knife bis father gave 

7. Jerusalem was the city to ... . the Crusaders bent their course. 

8. The scholar .... studied most improved the most. 

9. This is the house .... Jack built. 

10 hope .... and will soon be able to write good 

English. 



XLII.— THE ADJECTIVE: Qualifying. 

Select from the following examples all the adjectives that de- 
note some quality of the thing named by the noun which they 
modify. 

Model : " Good shepherds care for tender lambs." 

The adjective "good" expresses a quality of shepherds; the adjec- 
tive " tender" expresses a quality of lambs. 

Examples. — 1. Good shepherds care for tender lambs. 2. An hon- 
est man is the noblest work of God. 3. Friday was a comely, hand- 
some fellow, with straight, strong limbs. 4. John gave James ten large 
apples. 5. Clever girls can learn difficult lessons. 6. The old oaken 
bucket hangs in the well. 7. What a beautiful flower you have ! 
8. The new map has come. 9. After a weary walk, we reached a small 
village. 10. The loftiest mountains are found in Asia. 11. The sun, 
the great fountain of light, showered down his rays. 

12. Some mossy bank my couch must bo, 
Some rustling oak my canopy. 



THE ADJECTIVE. 71 

Definition. — A qualifying adjective is one that denotes a 
quality. 

NOTES. 

I. Adjectives show qualities of different kinds : as — 

Color \ ^ '^"^^^^ horse. A black dog. A red book. 

■ ■ ^ A yelloiv flower. A purple dress. A crimson sash. 
_. j A large house. A small cottage. A broad road. 

■ ■ ] A naii-oio path. A low chimney. A tall chimney. 

!A soft bed. A pleasant bed. A hard rock. Soft sand. 

A fierce tiger. A gentle lamb. Fine weather. 
A sweet apple. A strong hand. A brave heart. 

II. Some adjectives are derived from proper nouns, and hence are 
called proper adjectives : tlius — 

PROPER NOUNS. PROPER ADJECTIVKS. 

China, Chinese. 

Italy, Italian. 

America, American. 

Spain, Spanish. 

Scotland, Scotch (or Scottish). 

Turkey, Turkish. 

Capitals. — Rule. Proper adjectives begin with a capital 
letter. 



XLIII. — THE ADJECTIVE: Limiting. 

Select from the following examples all the adjectives that 
merely j^oint oict the thing named, or denote the numler or 
quantity of it. Also select the articles. 

Model : " This book has belonged to my sister for four years." 

The word " this " is used to point out ichich hook ; the word " four" 
is used to denote liow many years. 

Examples. — 1. This book has belonged to my sister for four years. 
2. That woman lives in this cottage. 3. A nightingale sang some 



72 SUBDIVISION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. [SEC. III. 

sweet notes. 4. Your six pigeons are dead. 5. On the second day 
after our arrival, fifty persons came to visit us. 6. Whose book is this? 
7. "What a beautiful flower you have ! 8. Our brave soldiers faced 
many dangers. 9. Two tall elm trees shade the old brown house. 
10. There are seven days in a week. 11. Most boys enjoy skating. 
12. Sir Ralph the Rover tore his hair, 
And cursed himself in his despair ; 
But the waves rush in on every side, 
And the vessel sinks beneath the tide. 

Definition. — A limiting adjective is one that merely defines or 
restricts the meaning of a noun. 



NOTES. 



I. Some limiting adjectives serve merely to 2'^oint out the thing 
named : as — 

this horse (the nearer one), 
that horse (the farther one). 

II. Some limiting adjectives show the quantity of a thing : as — 

1. Fixed. One OS.. Two osen. Three cow^. 
The first fox. The third horse. The fourth 

dog. 
^acA individual. MtJicr m&n. IfeitJier vrom- 
Number. J an. 

2. Uncertain. Some persons. Other persons. 
All children. Many children. 
Several women. Few girls. Most boys. No 

persons. Every traveler. 

ass or ; ^^^^^^ ^ea. Much sugar. Little milk. Any bread. 
Bulk. ) 

III. Articles. — A (or an) is called the indefinite article; the, the 
definite article. 

An is used before words beginning with vowel sounds ; a before 



REVIEW OF ADJECTIVES. 



words beginning with consonant sounds : as, a man ; a liouse ; a year ; 
a wonder ; a use ; an art ; an end : an lieir ; an urn, 

Obs. — The vowels are a, e, z, o, tt. W^and y are consonants when they precede 
a vowel in the same syllable ; otherwise, vowels. 

IV. Pronominal Adjectives. — Some limiting adjectives may by 
themselves represent a noun. These are called pronominal adjectives : 
thus — 



Look on this picture. 
Both boys are studious. 
Have you seen any geese ? 
Some girls are lazy. 



PRONOMINAL, 

Look on this. 
Both are studious. 
Not any. 
Some are industrious. 



XLIV. — REVIEW OF ADJECTIVES. 

There are two general subdivisions of adjectives : — 
1. Qualifying. II. Limiting. 

I. A qualifying adjective is one that denotes a quality. 

II. A limiting adjective is one that merely define or restricts 
the meaning of a noun. 

The articles, tlie and a or a??, are limiting adjectives. 



EXERCISE 29. 

Rule slates or paper as below, and write the different classes 
of adjectives in the following piece. 



QUALIFYING. 


LIMITING. 


ARTICLES. 


little 
green 


this 


a 
th« 



74 SUBDIVISION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. [SEC. III. 

SILK. 
We get silk from a caterpillar called the silkworm. This little 
creature is green in color, and feeds on tlie leaves of the mulberry 
tree. It is hatclied from an egg about the size of a mustard 
seed, and changes its skin four times before it reaches its full 
size. When full grown, it leaves off eating, and covers itself 
over with a pretty silken case, inside of which the little spinner 
goes to sleep for some time. When its sleep is over, it makes a 
hole in its case, and comes out in the shape of a small butterfly, 
which lays a number of eggs, and then dies. It is from the case 
or ball spun by the silkworm that all our silk is made. The 
balls, or cocoons as they are called, are thrown into warm water 
to loosen the gum with whicli the silkworm glues the threads 
together. Then four or five of the threads are fastened to a reel, 
and wound. In this state it is called raw silk; and it is next 
sent to the silk mill, to be prepared for the weaver. The best 
silk comes from China, where silkworms were reared, and silk 
was woven into cloth, hundreds of years ago. 



XLV.— THE ADJECTIVE: Constructive Exercises. 

a. 

Write sentences introducing the adjective forms of^the follow- 
ing proper nouns. ^^ Underline the adjectives. 

Model: "Switzerland." Swiss scenery is celebrated for its beauty. 

1. Switzerland, 3. Holland. 5. Japan. 7. Paris. 

2. Sweden. 4. Peru. 6. Scotland. 8. Turkey. 

b. 

Supply suitable adjectives. 

1. Caesar was a general. 

2. There are scholars in my class. 

3 dog was barking at horse. 

4 house on the hill is mine. 



THE VERB. 



7b 



Write on paper or slates ten sentences, each sentence contain- 
ing one of the following nouns with an adjective joined to it. 

1. Orange. 3. Bonnet. 5. Farm. 7. Mountain. 9. Thread. 

8. Coat. 4. Shawl. 6. Monkeys. 8. Wagon. 10. Scissors. 

d. 

Write in columns on slate or blackboard, under each heading, 
nine more adjectives denoting — 



COLOR. 


KIND. 


SIZE. 


brown 


sweet 


large 



Rewrite the sentences, and change the meaning by putting in 
other adjectives. 

Model : "A little red cross dog attacked a gay young prancing horse." 

1. A large black fierce dog attacked a poor old lame horse, 

2. The damask roses perfume the balmy morning air. 

3. The pretty little child fondles the small black kitten. 

4. Some idle careless scholars waste many precious hours. 

5. Two tall elm trees shade the old brown house. 



XLVI. — THE VERB : Transitive and Intransitive. 

Select from the following examples all those verbs ivhich tahe 
an ohject^ and in another column those which cZo not take an object. 

Examples. — 1. The pony eats hay. 2. The house fell. 3. The cow 
gives milk. 4. John loves his sister. 5, The bird flew away. 6. 
Leaves have their time to fall. 7. The teacher instructs us. 8. Who 
calls me? 9. Watch him. 10. Coal burns. 11. This poor man dwells 
in a little hut, yet he loves his home. 12. The sisters danced the 
polka. 13. I felt so happy that I almost danced for joy. 14. Old Joe 



76 



SUBDIVISION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. [SEC. III. 



tells funny stories. 15. His illness lasted long. 16. A soft answer 
turneth. away wrath. 

Definition I. — A transitive verb is one that denotes an action 
terminating on some object. 

Transitive means passing over, for the action denoted bj' the verb is thought of 
as passing over to the object. 

The object of a transitive verb is either a noun (or pronoun), or some word or 
words having the use of a noun. 

Definition II. — An intransitive verb is one that denotes (i) a 
state or condition, or (2) an action not terminating on an object. 

Intransitive means not passing over to an object, for the action ends with the 
person (or thing) spoken of as doing it. 



NOTES. 



I. The same verb may be either transitive or intransitive, according 
to its use : thus — 

1. Farmers mow (iutrans.). Farmers mow grass (trans.). 

2. Ice melts (intrans.). Heat 7nelts ice (trans.). 

3. Fire Z>?/?v/,9 (intrans.). Yire hmnis wood {ivKn^.). 

n. Most intransitive verbs require no words to complete their sense ; 
but a few intransitive verbs take a complement, or completing part. (See 
page 53.) Such verbs are sometimes called neuter, copidd, or appositiou 
verbs. They are, however, simply intransitive verbs of incomplete precU- 
cation. 



EXERCISE 30. 
a. 

Rule slates or paper as below, and write the verbs. 



grows 
invented 



verb intrans. 
verb trans. 



THE ADVERB. 77 

1. The india-rubber tree grows in Brazil. 2. Whitney invented 
the cotton gin. 3. The farmer sent his servant. 4. The moon 
moves round the earth. 5. Fulton constructed the first steam- 
boat. 6. Bryant wrote " Thanatopsis.'" 7. The patriot's heart 
bled. 8. Is he coming home? 9. Speak, marble lips ! 
10. God moves in a mysterious way 
His wonders to perform : 
He plants his footsteps in the sea, 
And rides upon the storm. 

b. 

Write twelve sentences with verbs which require an object, 
and twelve with verbs which do not require an object. 



XLVII. —THE ADVERB : Simple and Conjunctive. 

Select from the following examples the adverbs that simply 
modify verbs, and distinguish them from those that connect state- 
ments in a sentence. 

Model : " You live here. I know where you hve." 

"Here " is an adverb, and merely modifies the verb * ' live." " Where '* 
is an adverb, and connects the two statements "I know" and "you 
live." 

Examples. — 1, You live here. 2. I know where you live. 3. James 
studies diligently. 4. I have heard how he studies. 5. Slowly, sadly, 
we laid him down. 6. The wind blew terribly. 7. I will go when I 
am invited. 8. We must study while we are young. 9. A very pretty 
bird daintily picked up the crumbs. 10. Do you know why it is cold in 
northern countries? 11. Go where glory waits thee. 12. Go yonder. 

Explanation. — Some adverbs serve only to modify the words 
with which they are joined. These are called sunpic advei'bs. 

A few adverbs are used to connect statements in a sentence. 
These are called conjunctive (that is, con-joining) adverbs. 



78 



SUBDIVIPTON OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 



[sec. 



Definttiox T. — A simple adverb is one that merely modifies 
the word with which it is used. 

Definition II. — A conjunctive (or relative) adverb is one that 
not only modifies the word with which it is used, but connects 
two statements in a sentence. 



NOTES. 

I. The principal conjunctive adverbs are when, where, whence, why, 
how. 

II. When the conjunctive adverbs are used to introduce a question, 
chey are called interrogatue adverbs. 

III. The words "yes" aud " no" are generally classed with adverbs; 
but they do not modify any word. They give answers, or responses, to 
questions, and hence are sometimes called respormms. 



EXERCISE 31. 



Rule slates or paper as uelow, and classify the adverbs in this 
exercise. 



SIMPLE. 


CONJrNCTIVE. 


cheerfully 


when 



1. I will cheerfully accompany you when you are ready. 

2. Thomas rose early in the morning, and soon finished his work. 
8, He would not tell me where he had put the letter. 

4. Will you show me how to perform this example ? 

5. Does she write neatly? No ; quite clumsily. 

6. Did you call once, or twice? 

7. Nero was exceedingly cruel. 

8. He refused to tell his father why he ran away. 

9. That boy goes where he pleases aLd when he pleases. 



THE CONJUNCTION. 



10. When the dry season arrives, the reptiles bury themselves in 
the mud, where they remain till the tropical rains fall again. 

b. 

Use a corresponding aclverh for each adjective^ making such 
changes in words as are necessary : thus — 



1 

1. 


He is a sloio runner. 


He runs slowly. 


2. 


The child's sleep was soft. 


The child slept softly. 


1. 


He is a swift writer. 


He writes .... 


'^• 


Her singing was meet. 


She sang 


3. 


Their failure was complete. 


They failed 


4. 


Your labors were successful. 


You labored 


5. 


John had a heavy fall. 


John fell 


6. 


My suspicions were correct. 


I suspected .... 


7. 


We took a sly peep. 


We peeped 


8. 


I gave him a steady look. 


I looked at him. 


9. 


The icTtole blame was his. 


He was .... to blame. 


10. 


He showed true sorrow. 


He was .... sorry. 



XLVIII. — THE CONJUNCTION : Coordinate and Subordinate. 

Select the sentences the parts of which are independent, — that 
is, those containing a7ic?, or, hut, therefore, — and distinguish them 
from tlie sentences containing a dependent statement ; that is, 
a statement introduced by if though, unless, that. 

Examples. — 1. I will go, and you will come. 2. I will go, if you 
will come. 3. I will go, but you will remain. 4. Fools build houses, 
and wise men live in them. 5. You will not become learned unless 
you study. 6. Stay a while, that we may enjoy ourselves. 7. Napo- 
leon conquered nearly all of Europe, but he died a prisoner at St. 
Helena. 8. We cannot solve the riddle unless we have the key. 
9. James or John is to blame. 10. Though He was rich, yet for our 
sakes He became poor. 



80 SUBDIVISION OF THE FARTS OF SPEECH. [SEC. Ill, 

Explanation. — The sentence " I will go, and you will come,'' 
consists of two statements, — statements of separate independent 
facts. 

The sentence "I will go, if you will come," consists of two 
statements also ; but the one is made dependent on the other : 
I will go, provided you come (meaning, if you do not come, 
I will not go), 

A conjunction which connects two independent parts of a sen- 
tence is called a coordinate conjunction ; that is, a conjunction 
joining two parts of the same order or rank. A conjunction 
which joins a dependent part of a sentence to the principal part 
is called a subordinate conjunction ; that is, a conjunction join- 
ing a part of a lower rank or order to another part. 

Definition I. — A coordinate conjunction is one that connects 
words, phrases, or propositions having the same rank. 

Definition II, — A subordinate conjunction is one that connects 
a dependent with a principal proposition. 

NOTE. — The principal cou junctions are : 

COORDINATE, SUBORDINATE. 

and but if lest 

either — or though because 

neither — nor unless for 

therefore hence that since 



EXERCISE 32. 
Supply conjunctions, and tell whether coordinate or suhordinate. 

1. The clouds soon passed away, .... sunsbine succeeded. 

2. The wicked may prosper for a time, .... they will receive retri. 

bution in the end. 

3. Contentment is better riches. 

4. He was gentle in mauner, , . . , resolute in action. 

5. We shall improve .... we study, 

6. Life is so uncertain .... we should always be prepared foT 

death. 



REVIEW EXERCISE. 



81 



7. I told you .... he would fail. 

8 you say so, I cannot believe it. 

9. You will succeed you persevere. 

10. We study .... we wish to learn. 

11. I shall not tell you, .... you promise to keep the secret. 
13. I think .... Henry is older Paul, he is not so tall. 



TABLE FOR BLACKBOARD. 

I Proper. 

Noun j COxMMON. 

( Abstract. 



Subdivisions of 
Parts of Speech. 



Conjunction., 



Personal. 
Relative. 
Interrogative. 

.,. ,. f Limiting. 

Adjective. i ^ 

( Qualifying. 

„ ^ ( Transitr-e. 

Verb i ^ 

( Intransitive. 

( Simple. 

Adverb . i ^ 

( Conjunctive. 



j Coordinate. 
( Subordinate. 



REVIEW EXERCISE. 

Name the class and subdivision of each word in the following 
exercise. 



The spider is a cunning fellow. He makes his living by his arts 
and stratagems. He lives by snares and plots, and yet he is an 
interesting little creature. He exhibits wonderful skill and in- 



SUBDIVISION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. [SEC. III. 

genuity in weaving liis nest, and possesses extraordinary pa- 
tience and perseverance. The thread of the spider is a soft 
substance, which is contained in a little bag in the body of the 
insect. 

b. 

Little Ann had a famous dog. His name was Grip. One day, Ann 
went out to visit a poor woman, and took Grip with her. Grip 
had not gone far when he saw a cat. He immediately gave 
chase ; but the cat ran up a tree, and was safe. Grip stood at 
the bottom, and barked with all his might ; but the cat never 
heeded him. 



Three or four years before Watt patented his steam engine, and 
Arkwright his spinning jenny, there was born in a New Eng- 
land farmhouse a boy whose work was needed to complete 
theirs. His name was Eli Whitney. Eli was a born mechanic. 
It was his nature to invent and construct. When a mere boy, 
he made pins and walking canes, and thus earned money to 
support himself at college. In 1792 he went to Georgia. A 
friend with whom he staid begged him to invent a machine to 
separate the seeds of cotton from the fiber. He shut himself up 
in his room, and brooded over the difficulty. At length his 
rude-looking machine was finished. It was put in motion. It 
was evident to all that it could do the work of hundreds of 
men. Eli had gained a great victory for mankind. In that rude 
hut in Georgia, cotton was crowned king, and a new era was 
opened for America and the world. 

d. 

Then came a burst of thunder sound — 

The boy — oh, where was he ? 
Ask of the winds that far around 

With fragments strewed the sea — 

With mast and helm and pennon fair, 

That well had borne their part ; 
But the noblest thing that perished there 

Was that young, faithful heart. 



COMPOSITION EXERCISES. 83 

COMPOSITION EXERCISES, 
a. — Filling Blanks. 

THE MARTINS. 

1. There an amusing story of two martins. 2. One spring, 

on back to their old nest, they a sparrow .... 

already .... possession of it as her own. 3. When the mar- 
tins to in, the sparrow at them, and not 

.... the nest. 4. The swallows some of their companions 

to their aid ; but, .... what they , they .... not . , . the 

sparrow ... 5. At last they .... away, and the sparrow 

(that . . . . , if sparrows ) that they her to 

the nest in quiet. 6. But the next day they all ... . back. 

7. There .... more than a hundred martins, and each .... a 

bit of clay in its beak. 8. Then they to work, and 

up the door of the nest with the clay, so that the poor spar- 
row .... not .... out, and .... of course for want of food 
and air. 

b. — Answering Questions. 
SUGAR. 

("What happens to sugar if you leave it in the water? 
Do you know any other things besides sugar that are sweet ? 
' I If you put sugar into tea, what happens to the sugar ? 
I If you put sugar into tea, does anything happen to the tea ? 



FRUIT TREES, 
f At what time of the year do fruit trees blossom ? 
I When is the fruit ripe ? 
* I When do the leaves fall from the trees ? 

I Are there any trees which are in leaf all the year round ? 

c. — Composition from Outlines. 

BREAD. 

Made from wheat — crushed in the mill — sifting, or separating into 
the bran and the flour — the flour then formed into dough by 



84 SUBDIVISION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH, [SEC. III. 

being well mixed with water — leavening the dough — mixing it 
with yeast or old leaven — rising — baking — bread made from 
Indian corn, barley, and rye — how these kinds compare with 
wheaten bread, [(lirls may add a recipe for making any kind of 
bread or cake.] 

d. — Abstract from Memory. 

TURNING THE GRINDSTONE. 

When I was a little boy, I remember, one cold winter's morning, 
I was accosted by a smiling man with an ax on his shoulder. 
"My pretty boy," said he, "has your father a grindstone?" — 
" Yes, sir," said I. " You are a fine little fellow, "said he. "Will 
you let me grind my ax on it?" Pleased with the compliment 
of " fine little fellow," " Oh, yes, sir ! " I answered. " It is down in 
the shop." — " And will you, my little man," said he, patting me 
on the head, "get me a little hot water?" How could I refuse? 
I ran, and soon brought a kettleful. "How old are you? and 
what's your name ?" continued he. " I am sure you are one of 
the finest lads that ever I have seen. Will you just turn a few 
minutes for me?" 

Tickled with the flattery, like a little fool, I went to work, and 
bitterly did I regret it. It was a new as, and I toiled and 
tugged till I was very tired. The school bell rang ; but I could 
not get away. My hands were blistered, and the ax was n(it 
half ground. At length, however, it was sharpened, and the 
man turned to me with, "Now, you little rascal, you've played 
truant : scud to the school, or you'll catch it ! " It was hard 
enough to turn a grindstone, but to be called a little rascal was 
too bad. 

e. — Letter Writing. 

Write a letter to your teacher, giving an account of some picnic, 
excursion, exhibition, play, or accident. 

NOTE. — Carefully read the Directions for Letter Writing, page 171. 



SECTION IV. 
MODIFICATIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 



XLIX. - MODIFICATIONS DEFINED. 

A noun may denote one, or more than one, of the objects 
named : as — 

ONE. MORE THAN ONE. 

star stars 

lady ladies 

ox oxen 

The distinction between one and more than one is called 
number. 

A noun may be the subject of a verb or the object of a verb, 
or it may denote that the person or thing named possesses 
something. 

1. Mother [subject] loves baby [object], 

2. Baby [subject] loves mother [object], 

3. The boy's [jjossessive] kite is torn. 

These differences in the form or use of nouns are called case. 

An adjective may denote a quality in different degrees : thus — 

1. John is a tall boy. 

2. James is tallei' than John. 

3. Richard is the tallest boy in the class. 

The changes to denote different degrees of a quality are called 
comparison. 

(85) 



«6 modifications of the parts of speech. [sec. iv. 

A verb may denote an action noio Qoing on, or one done, or one 
to he done : as — 

We walk — we ride. 

We walked — we 7'ode. 

We shall walk — we shall nde. 
The form by which a verb expresses time is called tense. 

Any grammatical change in a part of speech is called a modi- 
fication of that part of speech : hence — 

Definition. — Modifications of the parts of speech are their 
grammatical changes.* 



REFERENCE TABLE OF MODIFICATIONS. 






' Number. 


Noun — 




Case. 

[Gender and Person.] 
r Person. 


Pronoun . 




Gender. 
Number. 
^Case. 


Adjective 
Adverb . . . 


and 


- Comparison. 

' Person. 
Number. 


Verb 




Tense. 
Mood. 
Voice. 



* The expression "grammatical form" is deemed by the author a more exact 
defining term for the "properties'" of the parts of speech; and that term is em- 
ployed in his advanced grammar. But for elementary purposes the word " modifi- 
cations " may be preferred as less abstract. Teachers will please observe, however, 
that "modifications" is used in an enlarged sense, embracing all strictly gram- 
matical changes, whether expressed by inflections, radical change, the use of 
auxiliaries, or by mere grammatical relation. 



MODIFICATIONS OF THE NOUN. 



The preposition, the conjunction, "/.a the interjection have 
no grammatical changes (modific?^ jns). 



L. — MODIFICATIONS OF THE NOUN. 

The noun has two principal modifications : — • 
I. Number. II. Case. 

NOTE. — The secondary modifications — namely, gender and person — 
are explained in the Notes on page 90. 

1. Number. 
Number is a modification expressing one, or more than one, of the 
objects named by the noun. 

There are two numbers, the singular and the 2^ lured. 

The singular number denotes one : as, star, child. 

The plural number denotes more than one : as, stars, children. 



RULES FOR FORMING THE PLURAL. 

General Rule. — The plural number of nouns is generally formed 
by adding s to the singular. 

Exercise. — Write the plural of the following nouns. 



1 Eagle 


Citizen 


Number 


wer Hawk 


President 


Gender 


lit Wren 


Monarch 


Case 



Special Rule I. —When the singular ends in S, SH, z, x, or CH soft 
(as in churCH), the plural is formed by adding ES, making another syl- 
lable: thus — 

Gas, gas-es Waltz, waltz-es 

Guess, guess-es Fox, fox-es 

Dish, dish-es Bench, bench-es 

Obs. — Some nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant add es without increase 
of syllables ; as, Jiero, heroes ; potato, potatoes. 



88 MODIFICATIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. [SEC. IV. 

Exercise. — Write the plural of the following nouns. 



Kiss 


Lash 


Topaz 


Thrush 


Cross 


Birch 


Adz 


Hoax 


Match 


Compass 


Tax 


Miss 



Special Rule II. — When the singular ends in Y preceded by a con- 
sonant, the plural is formed by changing the Y into i, and adding ES: 

thus — 

sky, skies ; lady, ladies ; balcony, balconies. 
Obs. — But when it is preceded by a vowel, the plural is formed by the General 
Rule. 

Exercise. — Write the plural of the following nouns. 



Story 


Party 


Beauty 


Joy 


Ray 


Quality 


Duty 


Pony 


Injury 


Society 


Century 


Donkey 



Special Rule III. — Some nouns ending in F or FE form their plural 
by changing F or fe into V, and adding ES: as — 

thief, thieves ; wife, wives. 
Exercise. — Write the plural of the following nouns. 



Knife 


Leaf 


Self 


Elf 


Loaf 


Shelf 


Wolf 


Beef 


Life 


Calf 


Sheaf 


Half 



IRREGULAR PLURALS. 

The following nouns form their plural irregularly. 

foot feet 

tooth teeth 

goose geese 

^F'or peculiarities of numher, foreif/n plurals, etc., see Ajijjefulix, 
jmges 181-183.] 



man 


men 


ox 


oxen 


woman 


women 


mouse 


mice 


child 


children 


louse 


lice 



MODIFICATIONS OF THE NOUN. , 



2. Case. 



Case is a modification denoting the relation of a noun to some 
other word in the sentence. 

There are three cases of nouns : — 

I. Nominative. II. Possessive. III. Objective. 

The nominative case is that form which a noun has when it is 
the subject of a verb. 

The possessive case is that form which a noun has in order to 
denote ownership or possession. 

The objective case is that use which a noun has when it is the 
ohject of a verb or of a preposition. Its form is the same as the 
nominative case. 



RULES FOR THE POSSESSIVE CASE. 

1. The possessive singular is formed by adding an apostrophe (') and 
S to the nominative singular : as, boy, boy's. 

2. The possessive plural is generally formed by adding an apostrophe 
to the nominative plural : as, boys, boys' ; but when the nominative 
plural does not end in S, the possessive plural is formed like the pos- 
sessive singular : as, children, children's ; oxen, oxen's ; sheep, sheep's. 

Exercise. — "Write the jjossessive, singular and plural (if any), 
of the following nouns. 

1. Child ; prince ; woman ; king ; cable ; tutor. 

2. Peril ; mercy ; father ; Henry ; aunt ; cat. 

3. Charles ; gardener ; brother ; poetess ; author ; painter. 

4. Sculptor ; engineer ; sister ; Socrates ; princess ; bridge. 

5. House ; Peter ; righteousness ; ox ; thief ; sheep. 

Declension. — A noun is said to be declined when we name its 
three cases in the two numbers. The process of doing so is called 
declension. 



90 



MODIFICATIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. [SEC. W. 



DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 



BOY. 






MAN. 




SINGULAR. 


PLURAL. 




SINGULAR. 


PLURAL. 


Norn, boy 


boys 


Norn . 


man 


men 


Poss. boy's 


boys' 


Poss. 


man's 


men's 


Ohj. boy 


boys 


Ohj. 


man 


men 


LADY. 






SHEEP. 




SINGULAR. 


PLURAL. 




SINGULAR. 


PLURAL. 


Nom. lady 


ladies 


Nom . 


sheep 


sheep 


Poss. lady's 


ladies' 


Poss. 


sheep's 


sheep's 


Olj. lady 


ladies 


Ohj. 


sheep 


sheep 



NOTES ON GENDER AND PERSON IN NOUNS. 

I. Gender. — When the noun is the name of a male, it is said to 
be of the masculine gender ; when it is the name of a female, it is 
said to be of the feminine gender. Things which have no sex, or 
which are not spoken of as male or female, are said to be of the neuter 
gender. 

Sometimes the distinction of male and female is shown by the form 
of the noun : as, lion, lioness. 

Sometimes it is shown by prefixing a word denoting sex : as, he-hear, 
she-hear. 

Sometimes it is shown by the use of quite different words : as, hoy, 
girl ; hachelor, spinster. 



II. Person. — In some pronouns the names first, second, and third per- 
son, are used to denote the distinction between the speaker, the person 



MODIFICATIONS OF THE NOUN. 91 

spoken to, and the person or thing spoken of. This distinction is 
shown in the pronouns called 'personal pronouns : namely — 

First person J (denoting the speaker). 

Second person — you (denoting the person spoken to). 

(^^ ) 
Third person k she > (denoting the person or thing spoken of). 

We sometimes join a noun with a pronoun of the first person : as — 

I Paul have written it. 

And sometimes we address a person by a real name instead of a 
pronoun : as — 

Plato, thou reasonest well. 

The noun **Paul" is in the first person, and the noun "Plato" in 
the second person. With the exception of such examples as these, 
nouns are always the names of persons or things that we speak of, — 
which may be denoted by he, or she, or it, — and hence are in the third 
person. Besides, there is no change of form to mark the person of a 
noun. This distinction is therefore of little importance in parsing 
nouns. 



LI. — THE NOUN: Constructive Exercises. 



Write three sentences on each of the following nouns, bring- 
ing in each noun as (1) subject^ (2) possessive, (3) ohject. 

Model: "The ocean." 

1. The ocean is the great body of water surrounding the globe. 

2. The ocean's greatest depth has never been found out. 

3. The Sandwich Islanders love the ocean. 

1. The horse. 3. My cousin. 5. The river. 

3. A ship, 4. Washington. 6. A tiger. 



92 MODIFICATIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 



II. 

Write these sentences so as to make each statement in the 
singular number. 

Model: "Dutiful children obey their parents." Changed. — k. dutiful child 
obeys its parents. 

1. Dutiful children obey their parents. 

2. Men are mortal. 

3. Sheep have valuable wool on their backs. 

4. The oxen tread out the corn. 

5. Little women sometimes have great minds. 

6. These deer roam wild over the mountains. 

7. The schools are conducted very well. 



III. 

Write these sentences so as to make each statement in the 
plural number. 

Model : "My boy's tooth is decayed by eating sweetmeats." Changed.— 
My boy's teeth are decayed by eating sweetmeats. 

1. My boy's tooth is decayed by eating sweetmeats. 

2. A goose, by cackling, is said to have saved Rome. 

3. The mouse has been nibbling at the cheese. 

4. The ox browses in the green meadow. 

5. The sheep furnishes us with an important article used in mak- 

ing clothing. 

6. A man of words and not of deeds 
Is like a garden full of weeds. 

7. An honest man is the noblest work of God. 

8. The child likes to play. 

9. The woman washes clothes on the beach. 

10. A deer is a beautiful animal. 

11. A salmon was leaping in the water. 

12. The ox was drawing the team. 



MODIFICATIONS OF THE NOUN. 93 

IV. 

1. Write a sentence throwing into the plural form the state- 

ment, The valley rejoices. 

2. "Write in the singular form this sentence, Philosophers sur- 

vey mankind fror^i China to Peru. 

3. Tlie cargo has arrived: write a sentence stating that more 

than one has arrived. 

4. Write in the singular form the statement, Good wives luish 

to please their husbands. 

5. Write in the plural form the statement, A man tries to be rich. 

6. Monarchs tax their subjects : write this in the singular form. 

7. Write in the singular form. Monkeys jiourish in Africa. 

8. Write a sentence introducing man in the plural. 

9. Write a sentence introducing mice in the singular. 

10. Write a sentence introducing child in the plural. 

11. Write a sentence introducing penn^/ in the plural. 

12. Write a sentence introducing /ee!! in the singular. 

13. Write a sentence introducing ox in the plural. 

14. Write a sentence introducing sheep in the singular. 

15. Write a sentence introducing sheep in the plural. 

16. Write a sentence introducing teeth in the singular. 

17. Write a sentence introducing woman in the plural. 

18. Write a sentence introducing geese in the singular. 

19. Write a sentence introducing j9ence in the singular. 

20. Write a sentence introducing hippopotamus in the plural. 

V. 

1. Write a sentence using elephant in the possessive form 

singular. 

2. Write a sentence using sun in the possessive form singular. 

3. Write a sentence using lady in the possessive form plural. 

4. Write a sentence using crocodile in the possessive form plural. 

5. Write a sentence using sheep in the possessive form singular 

and plural. 

6. Write a sentence using calf in. the possessive form plural. 



94 



MODIFICATIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. [SEC. IV. 



LII.— MODIFICATIONS OF THE PRONOUN. 

I. The Personal Pronouns. 

The personal pronouns have modifications denoting person, 
gender, number, and case. They are thus declined : 



SINGULAR. 



PLURAL. 



Nom. Poss. Obj. 

I, my or mine, me. 

You, your or yours, you. 

He, his, him. 

She, her or hers, her. 

It, its, it. 



First person. 
Second. 

i Mas. 
Third ■! Fern. 

{ Neut. 
Second pers., solemn style. Thou, thy or thine, thee. 



Nom. Poss. Obj. 

We, our or ours, us. 
You, your or yours, you. 

They, their or theirs, them. 



Nojn. 2^1. Ye. 



NOTES ON THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

I. Except in the third personal pronoun singular, which has a form 
for each gender (?ie, she, it), the gender of the personal pronouns de- 
pends on the gender of the nouns for which they stand. Thus, /, thvu, 
tee, you, may be either masculine or feminine, according as they take 
the place of names of males or of females ; and t?iey may be masculine, 
feminine, or neuter, according as it takes the place of a masculine, a 
feminine, or a neuter noun. 

II. The personal pronouns of the first and second persons have two 
possessive forms, — my, mine; your, yours; our, ours; also the third 
person feminine has her, hers. The former of each pair is used when 
joined with a noun ; the latter is used when the noun is omitted : thus — 



my 1 

her 1 




f mine. 
1 hers. 


This is ' our ,- house. 


Bnt^ This house is- 


ours. 


your 
their ^ 




yours, 
theirs. 



MODIFICATIONS OF THE PRONOUN. 96 

II. The Relative and Interrogative Pronouns. 
The relative and interrogative pronouns who and which have 
modifications denoting case. That and what are not declined. 

SINGULAR. PLURAli. 



Nom. Poss. Obj. Novi. Poss. Obj. 

m. OX f. Who, whose, whom. Who, whose, whom. 

ifn.,f.,Qtn. Which, whose, which. Which, whose, which. 



EXERCISE 33. 
a. 

Tell the person, number, and case of the pronouns. 

1. Heaven helps men who help themselves. 

2. Promise me that you will send him what he wants. 

3. Whatever he asks, I will give him. 

4. Avoid such companions as do not speak the truth. 

5. Who found the money ? It was we. 

6. We bathed in Great Salt Lake, whose waters floated us like 

corks. 

7. I think I know what you were talking about. 

8. This is the dog that worried the cat that caught the rat that 

ate the malt. 

9. Whom did you say she married ? 

10. What is it worth ? What is it good for ? 

b. 

1. Compose a sentence containing the personal pronoun of 
the first person singular. 

2. Compose a sentence containing the personal pronoun of the 
third person plural. 

3. Compose a sentence containing the personal pronoun of 
the third person singular, feminine gender. 

4. Compose a sentence containing the relative ivho in the ob- 
jective case. 



96 MODIFICATIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. [SEC. IV. 

5. Compose a sentence containing the relative which in the 
possessive case. 

6. Compose a sentence containing the interrogative pronoun 
what in the nominative case. 



LIII. — MODIFICATIONS OF THE ADJECTIVE AND ADVERB. 

The adjective may change its form to denote comparison : 
thus — 

1. John is a tall boy. 

2. James is taller than John. 

3. Richard is the tallest boy in the class. 

Explanation. — The expression " a tall boy " means a boy who 
can be said to be tall "for a boy ; " that is, without comparison. 
But when it is said that "James is taller than John," we mean 
that James has more of the quality of tallness than John has. 
And when we say, "Richard is the tallest boy in the class," we 
mean that, as regards the "boys in the class," Richard has the 
quality of tallness in the greatest degree. 

Definition I. — Comparison is a modification of adjectives (and 
adverbs) to express degrees of quantity or quality. 

Definition II. — The degrees of comparison are called the posi- 
tive, the comparative, and the superlative degree. 

The positive degree denotes simply quantity or quality. 

The comparative degree denotes a greater degree of the quantity or 
quality. 

The superlative degree expresses the greatest degree of the quantity 
or quality. 

RULE FOR COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE. 

The comparative degree is generally formed by adding er to 
the positive, as tall, taller ; and the superlative degree by add- 
ing est to the positive, as tall, tallest. 

But many adjectives of two syllables, and all adjectives of more 



MODIFICATIONS OF THE ADJECTIVE. 



97 



than two, are compared by prefixing to the positive more for the 
comparative and most for the superlative : as, splendid, more 
splendid, most splendid ; beautiful, more heauiiful, most heautiful. 

NOTE. — The addition of er and est sometimes causes the positive to 
undergo certain changes, according to the rules for spelling derivative 
words : thus — 

hlue + er = bluer* (not hlueer). 

red + er = redder* (not reder). 

happy + er = happier* (not Tiap'pyer). 

Irregular Adjectives. — A few adjectives form their compara- 
tives and superlatives irregularly : thus — 



POSITIVE. , 


COMPARATIVE. 


SUPERLATIVE. 


good 


better 




best 


well 


better 




best 


bad \ 








evilt 


worse 




worst 


ill ) 








little 


less 




least 


manyi 
much J 


more 




most 


far 


farther 


or further 


farthest or furthest 


near 


nearer 




nearest or next 


late 


later or 


latter 


latest or last 


old 


older or 


elder 


oldest or eldest 


hind 


hinder 




hindmost 


up {ad^.) 


upper 




upmost or uppermost 


out {adx>.) 


outer 




utmost, uttermost, or outmost 



The Adverb. — The adverb, like the adjective, often undergoes 
a change of form to express comparison. 

Adverbs are compared in the same way as adjectives : thus — 



POSITIVE. 


COMPARATrV^E. 


STTPERTiATTVK. 


soon 


sooner 


soonest 


sweetly 


more sweetly 


most sweetly 



* Teachers will call attention to the rules for spelling derivative words, applica- 
ble in these cases. 



98 MODIFICATIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. [SEC. IV. 

EXERCISE 34. 

a. 

Select the adjectives, and state the degree of comparison of 
each. 

1. The squirrel is a merry little fellow. 

2. The color was whiter than snow. 

3. The shadows grow longer as evening approaches. 

4. To-morrow will be the maddest, merriest day. 

5. Homer was the most famous poet of ancient times. 

6. This is the best exercise that has been written this week. 

7. The sun is more brilliant than the moon. 

8. A prudent man saves something for a rainy day. , 

9. Yesterday was a pleasanter day than we expected. 
10. The Amazon is the broadest river in the world. 

b. 

Write, according to the model, sentences stating the follow- 
ing facts. Express the italicized words in each statement by 
07ie adjective. 

Model : "John has a greater degree of wisdom than Alexander." John is 
wiser than Alexander. 

1. John has a greater degree of icisdom than Alexander. 

2. Sugar possesses the greatest degree of sweetness of all substances. 

3. The Mississippi has greater length than the Amazon. 

4. Some mountain [naming it] has the greatest degree of loftiness of 

any mountain in the world. 

5. Contentment has more of the quality of goodness than wealth. 

6. Gold has greater heaviness than silver. 

c. 

Select the adverbs, and state the degree of comparison of each. 

1. The boat arrived sooner than we expected. 

2. Higher, higher, let us climb, 

3. The wind roared loudly among the stately pines. 

4. Merrily, merrily, bounds the bark across the foaming sea. 

5. It is more blessed to give than to receive. 

6. This field produces most abundantly. 



MODIFICATIONS OF THE VERB. 99 



LIV. — MODIFICATIONS OF THE VERB. 

Number of Modifications. — The verb has modifications of five 
kinds : namely — 

I. Person. II. Number. III. Tense. IV. Mood. V. Voice. 
1. Person and Number. 

Definition. — Person and number in verbs are modifications 
expressing the agreement of a verb with its subject 

Person. — Verbs are said to have three persons, according as 
they are connected with one of the three personal pronouns : 
thus — 

1. I call (verb in the ^r5^ person). 

2. You call (verb in the second person). 

3. He [or any singular noun] calls (verb in the tliircl person). 

Number. — Verbs are said to have two numbers, according as 
they are connected with a singular or a plural subject : thus — 
1. The boy calls (verb in the singular number). 
3. The boys call (verb in the plural number). 

NOTE. — There are very few actual forms to mark the person and 
number of a verb, and usually these modifications can be told only by 
referring to the subject. " A verb agrees with its subject in number and 
in person." — Syntax, Rule II. 



EXERCISE 35. 
a. 

Tell the person and number of each verb by referring to the 
person and number of the subject. 

1. I met a little cottage girl. 

2. The lady walks gracefully. 

3. You learn your lesson quickly. 

4. The wind blew down the lofty tree. 

5. They went away the day after we arrived. 

LofC. 



100 MODIFICATIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. [SEC. IV, 

6. He ran with all his might. 

7. I remember, I remember, the house where I was born. 

8. We are fond of swimming. 

9. The young larks have left their nests ; but they cannot fly far, 

10. 1 think we are never weary of beholding nature. 

11. Various officers fell in that engagement. 

12. The sheep know when the rain is coming. 

13. The Greeks loved the fine arts. 

14. She was eight years old, she said. 

15. I flew to the pleasant fields traversed so oft 

In life's morning march, when my bosom was young ; 
I heard my own mountain goats bleating aloft, 

And knew the sweet strain that the corn reaper sung. 

b. 

Supply verbs of the proper person. 

1. Rain .... in showers. 4. Because they .... sweetly. 

2. He to school daily. 5. How hard the wind . . . . ! 

3. I the birds. 6. You to succeed. 

c. 

Change the following verbs into the singular form, using a 
singular subject instead of each plural subject. 

Flowers .... bloom, grow, fade, flourish, thrive. 
Animals .... eat, drink, sleep, live, die. 



2. The Tenses. 
Definition. — Tenses are modifications of the verb to denote 
the time of an action or event. 

NOTE. — The tenses denote, in addition to the time of an action or 
event, the degree of its completeness. 

There are six tenses : namely — 

Present Present Perfect 

Past Past Perfect 

Future Future Perfect 



MODIFICATIONS OP THE VERB. 101 

3. The Moods. 
Definition. — Moods (or modes) are modifications of the verb 
to denote the manner of asserting action or being. 

NOTE. — ' ' Mood (or mode) is a grammatical form denoting the style 
or manner of predication." — Swinton's English Grammar. 

There are four moods : namely — 

Indicative Subjunctive 

Potential Imperative 

The indicative mood is used in the statement of a fact or of a 
matter taken as a fact. 

The potential mood is used in the statement of something 
that may, can, might, could, would, or should be. 

The subjunctive mood is used in the statement of something 
merely thought of. 

The imperative mood is used in the statement of a command 
or request. 



4. The Verbals. 
Definition. — The verbals are verb forms partaking of the 
nature of the verb, and having in addition the use of some other 
part of speech. 

The verbals are of two kinds : — 

I. Infinitives. II. Participles. 

The infinitive is a verba] noun. It merely names the action or 
state which the verb asserts : thus : — 

To read good books is improving. 

" To read" is an infinitive. It partakes of the nature of the verb, 
because it takes an object, "books ;" and it has in addition the use of 
a noun, because it is the subject of the verb " is." Hence " to read" is 
a verbal noun. 



102 MODIFICATIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. [SEC. IV. 

The root (or root infinitive) of a verb is a verb in its simplest 
form, and is the same as the infinitive without the preposition 
'Ho." Thus "read " is the root of the verb 'Ho read." 

The Gerund. — Besides the regular form of the infinitive, the 
verbal in ing is sometimes equivalent to an infinitive : thus — 

Beading good books (= to read good books) is profitable. 

This form is called the gerund. The gerund is a verbal noun. 

The participle is a verbal adjective. It shares or participates 
in the nature both of the verb and of the adjective : thus — 

The boy, seeing the bear, ran away. 

" Seeing " is a participle. It partakes of the nature of the verb, be- 
cause it takes an object, " bear ; " and of tbe adjective, because it is 
joined with a noun, " boy," to modify it. 

There are two participles formed by suffixes : the present par- 
ticiple and the past participle. 

Rule. — The present participle of all verbs is formed by adding ing 
to the root : as — 

write, writing ; hop, hopping. 

NOTE. — In adding ing, the rules for spelling derivative words must 
be observed. 

Rule. — The past participle of most verbs is formed by adding ED to 
the root ; but some verbs form their past participles in other ways : as — 

write, written ; tell, told. 

NOTE. — Verbs that do not form their past participle by adding 6'rf 
belong to the class of irregular verbs. (See Definition of Irregular Verb, 
page 103.) 



5. Voice. 
Definition. — Voice is a modification of the transitive verb, ex- 
pressing whether the subject names the actor or the recipient of 
the action. 



MODIFICATIONS OF THE VERB. 103 

There are two voices, namely : — 

I. Active voice. II. Passive voice. 

A verb in the active voice represents the subject as acting 
upon an object : as — 

Watt invented the steam engine. 
A verb in the passive voice represents the subject as receiving 
an action : as — 

The steam engine was iiwented by Watt. 

Rule. — The passive voice is formed by uniting with the past parti- 
ciple of any transitive verb the various parts of the verb TO BE. 



6. Conjugation of VerbSc 

Tho conjugation of a verb is the systematic arrangement of its 
various forms. There are two conjugations : — 

I. Regular. II. Irregular. 

These two conjugations are distinguished by the mode of 
forming the past tense (indicative) and the past participle. 

A regular verb is one whose past tense and past participle are 

formed by adding ed to the root : as (root) love, (past tense) 

loved, (past participle) loved. 

Obs. — In suffixing ed, care must be taken to observe the rules for spelling 
derivative words. 

An irregular verb is one whose past tense or past participle, 
or both, are not formed by adding ed to the root : as (root) 
take, (past tense) took, (past participle) taken. 

The principal parts of a verb are : — 
I. Present indicative. II. Past indicative. III. Past participle. 

An auxiliary verb is one used to assist in conjugating other 
verbs. The principal auxiliaries are do, he, have, shall, may, can, 
must, with their variations. 



104 MODIFICATIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. [SEC. IV. 

CONJUGATION OF A REGULAR VERB.* 
TO LOVE. 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 

Present — love. Past — loved. Past Participle — loved. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 
The present indicative is a simple tense, and one of the prin- 
cipal parts. It 13 varied thus : — 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. 1 love, 1. We love, 

2. You love, 2. You love, 

3. He f loves ; 3. They X love. 

Past Tense. 
The past indicative is a simple tense, and one of the principal 
parts. In regular verbs it is formed by adding ed to the root ; 
in irregular verbs, in some other way. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. I loved, , 1. We loved, 

2. You loved, 2. You loved, 

3. He loved ; 3. They loved. 

Future Tense. 
The future is formed by prefixing the auxiliaries shall or luill 
to the root : thus — 

1. Expressing simply a future action 01' event. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. I shall love, 1. We shall love, 

2. You will love, 2. You will love, 

3. He will love ; 3. They will love. 

* The conjugation of the verb to love presents the common form of the regular 
verb. The paradigm embodying the ancient form of the second person singular 
will be found in the Appendix, page 183. 

t Or any other pronoun of the third person singular {she^ it, etc.), or any noun 
in the singular number. 

t Or any noun in the plural number. 



MODIFICATIONS OF THE VERB, 105 



2. Expressing a determination, command, or threat. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. I will love, 1. We will love, 

2. You sliall love, 2. You shall love, 

3. He shall love ; 3. They shall love. 



Present Perfect 

The present perfect indicative is formed by joining the aux- 
iliary have with tire past participle of the verb. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. I have loved, 1. We have loved, 

2. You have loved, 2. You have loved, 

3. He has loved ; 3. They have loved. 

Past Perfect Tense. 
The past perfect indicative is formed by joining the auxiliary 
had with the past participle of the verb. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. I had loved, 1. We had loved, 

2. You had loved, 2. You had loved, 

3. He had loved ; 3. They had loved. 

Future Perfect Tense. 
The future perfect tense is formed by joining the future tense 
of the auxiliary have with the past participle. 

SINGULAR, PLURAL. 

1. I shall or will have loved, 1. We shall or will have loved, 

2. You shall or will have loved, 2. You shall or will have loved, 

3. He shall or will have loved ; 3. They shall or will have loved. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present Tense. 
The present potential is formed by joining the auxiliaries 
may, can, or must with the root. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. I may* love, 1. We may love, 

2. You may love, 2. You may love, 

3. He may love ; 3. They may love, 

* Substitute can and must. 



106 MODIFICATIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. [SEC. IV. 

Past Tense. 
The past potential is formed by joining the auxiliaries might, 
could, would, or should with the root. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. I might * love, 1. We might love, 

2. You might love, 2. You might love, 

3. He might love ; 3. They might love. 

Present Perfect Tense. 
The present perfect potential is formed by joining the present 
potential of the auxiliary have with the past participle. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. I may have loved, 1. We may have loved, 

2. You may have loved, 2. You may have loved, 

3. He may have loved ; 3. They may have loved. 

Past Perfect Tense, 
The past perfect is formed by joining the past potential of the 
auxiliary verb have with the past participle. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. I might have loved, 1. We might have loved, 

2. You might have loved, 2. You might have loved, 

3. He might have loved ; 3. They might have loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 
The present subjunctive is a simple tense having the same 
forms as the present indicative, except that the suffix s of the 
third person is omitted. f It is generally introduced by the 
conjunctions if, though, thai, etc. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. If I love, 1. If we love, 

2. If you love, 2. If you love, 

3. If he love ; 3. If they love. 

* SulMtitute 6«uld, would, should. 

t The suffix 8t 1h the solemn style is also omitted. 



MODIFICATIONS OF THE VERB. 



107 



Past Tense. 
The past subjunctive is a simple tense tiaving the same forms 
as the past indicative, and generally introduced by ^/, etc. 



SINGULAR. 

1. If I loved, 

2. If you loved, 

3. If he loved ; 



PLURAL. 

1. If we loved, 

2. If you loved, 

3. If they loved. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Love (you). 

INFINITIVES. 

Present — to love. Perfect — to have loved. 



GeTnnds\^'''''''^- 

( having loved. 



PARTICIPLES. 

Present — loving. Perfect — having loved. 

\_See Appendix, pages 183-192, for the conjugation of a mrh loith the 
ancient form of the second person singular, the conjugation of the verb 
TO BE, and a list of irregular nerhs.l 



EXERCISE 36. 



a. 



State to which tense of the indicative mood each of the fol- 
lowing verbs belongs. 

1. The boy walked home. 

2. The steamer crossed the ocean. 

3. The enemy will take this road. 

4. The soldiers took the town. 

5. The bride kissed the goblet. 

6. What a look he gave ! 

7. I shall drown. 

8. Bright rose the sun. 

9. You wrote a letter. 



108 MODIFICATIONS OF THE FARTS OF SPEECH. [SEC. IV. 

10. The rain descended, and the floods came, and the winds blew, 

and beat upon that house. 

11. The merchant writes a dispatch. 

12. The merchant has written a dispatch. 

13. You play all day. 

14. You have played all dayc 

15. 1 tell you I know not. 

16. I liave told you all I know, 

17. They have sung that song remarkably well. 

18. The messenger has just left. 

19. He has sent away the ship. 

20. We have finished this exercise. 

21. I had sent the messenger before you arrived. 

22. We saw the deer before we had passed through the woods. 

23. After the moon had risen, the wind fell. 

24. The train had gone before we reached the depot. 

25. The sun had risen when we left home. 

26. When the lion had shaken his victim, he left him. 

27. They had thought we did not know of their conduct. 

28. It appeared that the boy had come home immediately after he 

had left school. 

29. When she had thought a little, she wept bitterly. 

30. She had laid back all his sunny curls. 

31. When once you shall have reached that happy shore, you will 

have no more sorrow. 

32. I shall have walked to the depot before the train arrives. 

33. Before Saturday, the boys will have matured all their plans for 

the holidays. 

34. The servant will go on the errand as soon as the messenger shall 

have returned. 

35. The man will have paid dearly for his ignorance. 

36. When this exercise is completed, we shall have finished all the 

compound tenses. 

37. She looks upon his lips, and they are pale ; 

She takes him by the hand, and that is cold ; 
She whispers in his ear a heavy tale, 
And opens both his eyes. 



MODIFICATIONS OF THE VERB. 109 

b. 

In the following lines, change the verbs from the present 
tense to the past tense. 

I shoot an arrow into the air, 
It falls to earth, I know not where ; 
For so swiftly it flies, the sight 
Can * not follow in its flight. 

c. 

Make this statement of some time ago: Steamers sail on the 
ocean. 

Make this statement of last night : The fire burns brightly to- 
night. 

Make this statement, using ancient Greeks instead of lue : TVe 
admire fine statues. 

Make this statement about the Germans a thousand years ago : 
The Germans love independence. 

d. 

From the following hints, write a short composition telling 
what you think will he the condition of the world a hundred 
years hence. Underline each verb in i\iQ future tense. 

The ways of traveling then — balloons, etc. 
The greatness of our country then — tlie number of people, etc. 
Our knowledge of distant parts of the world then — the interior of 
Africa, the North Polar region, etc. 

Will all the governments of Europe then be republics ? 
Women voting then — will a woman be President ? 

e. 

State the mood and tense of each of the following verbs. 

1. The village bell rings. 

2. If you go, I shall follow you. 

3. Scholars may go home wlieu they have learned this lesson. 

4. The storm has ceased. 

* Change to could. 



110 MODIFICATIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. [SEC. IV 

5. Come, all ye jolly shepherds. 

6. The king can make a belted knight. 

7. The merchant should have learned more caution, 

8. My steps might break your rest. 

9. If I had not watered the flowers, they would have withered. 

10. Go where glory waits you. 

11. The sun could not shine, for dark clouds covered the sky. 

12. Up from the ground he sprang and gazed ; but who could paint 

that gaze ? 
They hushed their very hearts, who saw its horror and amaze ; 
They might have chained him, as before that stony form he 

stood. 
For the power was stricken from his arm, and from his lip the 

blood. 



Tell which verbs are regular, and which are irrefjular. 

1. The famine came at last upon the land, and many perished from 

want. 

2. Father sold his farm when he went to California. 

3. The sun shone brightly yesterday. 

4. Hearing the sound of footsteps, we resolved to go no farther. 

5. Shakespeare wrote many dramas. 

6. We hoped you would visit us when the leaves fell. 

7. The American soldiers fought well, 

8. The microscope shows us animalcules. 

9. The fox will steal the hens. 

10. The mechanic repaired the engine. 

11. The study of history will improve our minds. 

12. Adams died on the Fourth of July. 

13. They grew in beauty side by side. 

14. The church bell rings. 

15. We shall form our plans next week. 

16. You wrote three hours last night, 

17. I'm very lonely now, Mary, 

For the poor make few new friends ; 
But oh ! they love the better 
The few our Father sends. 



MODIFICATIONS OF THE VERB. 



Ill 



BLACKBOARD REVIEW. 



Noun. 



Number (SINGULAR. 

I Plural. 



Nominative. 

Possessive. 

Objective. 



/ Masculine. 

Gender -) Feminine. 

( Neuter. 

/ First. 

Person ) Second. 

( Third. 



Pronoun . 



( First. 

Person ■] Second. 

( Third. 

/ Masculine. 

Gender, -Ifeminine. 

( Neuter. 

j Singular. 
( Plural. 

r Nominative. 

Lease -j Possessive. 

( Objective. 



Number . 



Adjective and) comparison.. 
Adverb ) 



i Positive. 
Comparative. 
Superlative, 



112 



MODIFICATIONS r,F TUK PAHTS OF SPEECH. [SEC. IV 



Verb. 



Person.. 



j Active. 
( Passive. 

r Indicative. 
) Potential. 
I Subjunctive. 
[ Impekative. 
'Present. 

Past. 

Future. 

Present Perfect. 

Past Perfect. 
I FuTURfi Perfect. 

{First. 
Second. 
Third. 
( Singular. 
( Plural. 



REVIEW QUESTIONS. 



1. What are modifications of the parts of speech ? 

2. How many parts of speech have modifications? 

3. Name three parts of speech having no modifications. 

4. Which are the two principal modifications of the noun? 

5. What two secondary modifications has the noun ? 

6. What is number in nouns ? 

7. What are the numbers ? 

8. Define singular number. Plural number. 

II. 

1. How is the plural of nouns generally formed? 

2. When is es added for the plural ? 

3. How do singular nouns ending in ?/ preceded by a consonant 

form their plural? 

4. How do some nouns ending in/or/d form their plural. 



REVIEW QUESTIONS. 113 

5. What is case in nouns ? 

6. How many cases are there ? 

7. What is the nominative case ? Possessive case ? Objective case f 

III. 

1. Which two cases of nouns have the same form ? 

2. What is the rule for forming the possessive singular of nouns ? 

3. What is the rule for forming the possessive plural of nouns? 

4. Decline the noun lioy ; man ; lady ; sheep. 

5. When is a noun said to be of the masculine gender? Of the 

feminine gender? Of the neuter gender? 

6. What are the three persons of nouns ? 

7. Is person in nouns marked by the form of the word ? 

IV. 

1. What four modifications have personal pronouns? 

2. Decline who ; ichich. 

3. What is comparison ? 

4. Name the three degrees of comparison. 

5. Give the general rule for forming the comparative and superla- 

tive degrees. 

6. How are the comparative and superlative degrees generally 

formed in words of more than two syllables ? 

7. How are the comparative and superlative degrees of adverbs 

formed ? 

V. 

1. What are the five modifications of verbs ? 

2. What are person and number in verbs ? 

3. How many persons are there? How many numbers? 

4. How many tenses are there ? 

5. How many moods are there ? 

6. Define indicative mood. Potential. Subjunctive. Imperative. 

7. What are the two kinds of verbals ? 

VI. 

1. What is the infinitive ? 

2. What is a participle ? 



114 MODIFICATIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. [SEC. 

3. What is voice in verbs ? 

4. Define active voice. Passive voice. 

5. What is a regular verb ? 

6. What is an irregular verb ? 

7. What is an auxiliary verb ? 



COMPOSITION EXERCISES. 

a. — Composition from Outlines. 

Write a composition on " My School Days," by stating some 
of the following facts. 

1. When you began to go to school. 

2. What schools you have attended. 

3. The names of all your teachers. 

4. What you have studied. 

5. What your favorite studies are. 

6. In what branches you excel. 

1. Some incident of your school life. 

b. — Composition from Outlines. 

From the following outlines write a composition on 

MY NATIVE TOWN. 
' 1. Situation : In what State, part of the State, and in 
what county ; near what body of water, city, or 
large town. 
Outlines. <( 2. General Description : Size, pursuits of the people, 
trade, railroads, steamers, mills or manufactories. 
Scenery : Mention any lake, river, mountain, or other 
interesting object of natural scenery. 

c. — Abstract from Memory. 

FIVE PEAS IN ONE POD. —[Adapted from Hmis A7idersen.j 

Once there were five peas growing in one pod. The peas were 
green, the pod was green, the vine was green, the leaves were green, 
and they thought all the world was green. The warm sun shone on 



COMPOSITION EXERCISE. 115 

the vine ; the summer rain watered it. The shell grew larger, and 
the peas grew bigger and bigger. 

" A.re we to lie here cooped up forever?" asked one. 

"I am tired of it," said another. 

" I fear we shall become hard," said a third. 

"I want to see what there is outside," said a fourth. While the fifth, 
a very little pea, cried because he could not get out. 

At length the vine turned yellow, the pod turned yellow, and the 
peas turned yellow. 

"All the world is turning yellow," said the peas with one voice. 

Then there came an earthquake. The pod burst open with a crack, 
and all the five peas rolled out into the yellow sunshine. A little boy 
clutched them, and said they were fine peas for his pea shooter. He 
put the biggest one into his gun, and shot it out. 

** Catch me if you can ! " said the big pea. 

" I shall fly straight into the sun," said the next one. .. 

"I shall travel farthest," said the third pea. 

" Let me alone," said the fourth. 

"What is to be will be," said the little pea, as he shot up, and 
lodged in an empty flowerpot in the window of a room where lay a 
poor sick girl. 

Pretty soon the little pea sprouted, and began to grow up into a 
beautiful vine. 

" Dear mother, 1 think I shall get well," said the little girl one day ; 
"for my pea is growing famously." 

"God grant it !" said the mother; and she took a stick and tied a 
string to it, so that the green vine might have something to cling to. 

After many days there stood a beautiful pink pea blossom smiling 
in the warm sunshine. The little girl kissed it, and said, " Now I am 
sure I am going to get well." 



SECTION V. 



SYNTAX. 



Syntax is that division of grammar which treats of the rela- 
tions of words in sentences. 

It is divided into two parts, parsing and the rules of con- 
struction. 

Parsing consists in stating the class, subdivision, and modifi- 
cations of the words in a sentence. 

The rules of construction are statements of the general prin- 
ciples governing the relations of words in sentences. 



I. Parsing. 
In parsing the different parts of speech, the method indicated 
in the following tables may be followed. 

' Subdivision — proper, common, or abstract. 
Number — singular or plural. (Number in proper nouns 

Noun \ may be omitted.) 

Case — nominative, possessive, or objective (as denoted by 
form or use). 
^Subdivision — personal, relative, or interrogative. 
Person — (in personal pronouns ; in relative pronouns 
of the first or second person only). 
Pronoun ....<, Number — siyigular or plural. 

Gender — (in personal pronouns of the third person 
singular only). 
^ Case — nominative, possessive, or objective. 
(116) 



RULES OF CONSTRUCTION. 117 

■ Subdivision — limiting (pronominal) or qualifying. 
Adjective . . J. Comparison — positive, comparative, or superlative. 
Office — attributive or complementary. 

^ Conjugation — regular or irregular. 
Subdivision — transitive or intransitive. 
Voice — active or passive. 

/erb ■{ Mood — indicative, potential, etc. 

Tense — present, past, etc. 
Person — first, second, or third. 
Number — singular or plural. 

Ad p h i Subdivision — simple or conjunctive. 

* ' ' ' ( Comparison — (if comparative or superlative). 
Prepositions . . words connected. 
Conjunctions . . words or propositions connected. 



II. Rules of Constrtjction. 
Rule I.— The subject of a verb is in the nominative case. 

Rule II. — A verb agrees with its subject in person and 
number. 

Rule III. — Adjectives and participles modify nouns or 
pronouns. 

Rule IT. — A noun modifying another noun signifying 
a different thing is in the possessive case. 

Rule T. — A noun or pronoun used to explain another 
noun or pronoun is put by apposition in the same case. 

Rule VI. — The object of a transitive verb is in the ob- 
jective case. 



118 SYNTAX. [sec. V. 

Rule YII. — A noun or pronoun used as the complement 
of an intransitive or a passive verb is in the nominative 
case. 

Rule Till. — An adverb modifies a verb, an adjective, or 

anotlier adverb. 

Rule IX. — A pronoun agrees in person, gender, and 
number with its antecedent, or the word tliat it represents. 

Rule X. — 1. A preposition joins a noun or pronoun to 
some other word. 

2. A noun or pronoun depending on a preposition is in 
the objective case. 

Rule XL — Conjunctions connect words, phrases, or 
propositions. 

Rule XII. — 1. A noun or pronoun whose case depends 
on no other word is put in the nominative case. 

2. The interjection has no grammatical relation to the 
other parts of the sentence. 



THE SUBJECT. 
Rule I. — The subject of a verb is in the nominative case : as — 

1. Wate7' consists of two gases. 

2. He is the man who, I think, wrote the letter. 

Model for Parsing 

water. . .is a common noun, of the singular number and nominative 

case, subject of the verb " consists," according to Rule I. 
he is a personal pronoun, of the third person, singular number, 



THE SUBJECT. 119 

masculine gender, and nominative case, subject of the verb 
"is," according to Rule I. 

who ... .is a relative pronoun, of the singular number and nomina- 
tive case, subject of the verb "wrote," according to Rule I. 

I is a personal pronoun, of the first person, singular number, 

nominative case, subject of the verb " think," according to 
Rule I. 



EXERCISE 37. 

In the following sentences, parse the subjects according to the 
nodel. 

1. Books are not dead things. 

2. The teacher taught the pupils to sing. 

3. The crows which are feeding in the field are easily frightened. 

4. I heard a wonderful story when I was a little girl. 

5. We will know our lesson better to-morrow. 

6. He lives in the old cottage at the foot of the hill. 

7. And the mother gave, in tears and pain. 

The flowers she most did love : 
She knew she should find them all again 
In the fields of light above. 

Caution. — : Never use a pronoun in the objective case as the subject 
>faverb: thus — 

Betsey and me were out. 

This is incorrect, because the pronoun "me" in the objective case 
s made the subject of the verb " were." It should be, " Betsey and 1 
vere out." 



EXERCISE 38. 

Correct by the caution the following examples. 

1. Suppose you and me go a-gunning. 

2. Ida is the girl whom we supposed would read the poem. 
8. Who will go after a pail of water? Her and me [will go]. 



120 SYNTAX. [sec. V. 

4. Who did the mischief? Them [did]. 

5. Them are the books which we wanted. 

6. You learn faster than me [learn]. 



AGREEMENT OF THE VERB. 

Rule II. — A verb agrees with its subject in number and in 
person; as — 

1. I am that merry wanderer. 

2, A bee among the flowers of spring is one of the most cheerful 

objects that can be seen. 

Model for Parsing. 

am is an irregular intransitive verb (be), of the indicative 

mood, present tense, first person singular, and agrees 
with its subject "I," according to Rule II. 

is is an irregular intransitive verb, of the indicative mood, 

present tense, third person singular, and agrees with 
its subject "bee," according to Rule II. 

can be seen. . .is an irregular transitive verb (see), of the passive voice, 
potential mood, present tense, third person plural, and 
agrees with its subject " that," according to Rule II. 



EXERCISE 39. 

In the following sentences, parse the verbs according to the 
model. 

1. Letters pass through the post office, 

2. We wandered across the meadows. 

3. The goats were feeding on the mountain side. 

4. Still waters run deep, 

5. Where have you been? 

6. Men may come, and men may go. 

7. " For oh ! " say the children, " we are weary. 
And we cannot run or leaj/ " 



AGREEMENT OF THE VERB. 121 

Caution. — Words or phrases qualifying the subject must not aCect 
the number of the verb : thus — 

The souud of many voices reach my ear. 

This is incorrect, because the verb "reach" is plural, while its sub- 
ject "sound" is singular. It should be, "The sound of many voices 
reaches my ear." 



SPECIAL RULES UNDER RULE II. 

Special Rule I. — Two or more subjects in the singular connected by 
AND, and conveying plurality of idea, require a verb in the plural : as — 

1. Gold and iron are metals. 

2. Mary and Ida seem happy. 

Caution. — When two singular nouns convey the idea of one person 
or thing, or when they are preceded by EACH, every, or wo (and are thus 
taken separately), the verb must be in the singular : as — 

The soldier and statesman who secured our liberties imre born in 
Virginia. 
This is incorrect, because the nouns "soldier" and "statesman" 
denote one person (Washington), and hence should take a verb in the 
singular ; but " were born " is plural. It should be "was born." 

Special Rule II. — Two or more subjects in the singular, connected 
by OR or nor, require a verb in the singular : as — 

1. Either the man or his wife has stolen my watch — (not "have 

stolen my watch "). 

2. Neither the day nor the hour has been appointed — (not ''have 

been appointed "). 

Special Rule III. — Collective nouns require a verb in the singular 
when the sense is singular, and in the plural when the sense is plural : 
as — 

The regiment icas composes of many men. 
We think of the regi/ment (though composed of many men) as form- 
ing one body. The sense is singular, and hecce the verb "was com- 
posed " is singujar also. 



1J2 SYNTAX. [sec. V. 

The people were greatly displeased. 

We do not tliink of "people" as denoting one body. It has tlie 
sense of many persons, each of whom *' was displeased." Hence the verb 
is plural. 



EXERCISE 40. 

Correct these examples by Rule IT., or the Special Rules or 
Cautions. 

By Rule U. 

1. What was you doing and where was you going? 

2. Cowardice and treachery generally goes together. 

3. Romulus and Remus was twin brothers. 

4. Many who was slain lies in unknown graves. 

5. Six months' interest are due. 

6. Honor and shame from no condition rises. 

7. The number of senators from each of the states are limited to twa 

8. Nitrogen and oxygen united forms the air which we breathe. 

By Special Rule I.— Caution. 

1. Each book and each paper were carefully examined. 

3. My friend and companion have often warned me of the danger. 

3. No oppression, no tyrant reign here. 

4. Bread and milk are good for children. 

5. Every emotion and every operation of the mind have a corre- 

sponding expression of the countenance. 

6. For a laggard in love and a dastard in war 
Were to wed the fair Ellen of brave Lochinvar. 

By Special Rule II. 

1. When sickness or misfortune overtake us, the sincerity of friend. 

ship is tested. 

2. A man's being rich or his being poor do not effect his character 

for integrity. 
%. Neither ihe man nor his son were present. 



ADJECTIVES AND PARTieiPLES. 123 

By Special Rule III. 

1. The army were large. 

2. The Board of Education have passed the resolution unanimously. 

3. The senate of the United States have adjourned. 

4. The fleet have been scattered by the storm. 



ADJECTIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 

Rule III. — Adjectives and participles modify nouns or pro- 
nouns: as — 

1. Around the fire one lointry night 
The farmer's rosy children sat. 

2. The king, surrounded by his courtiers, proceeded to the palace. 

Model fob Parsing. 

the is a limiting adjective (or an article) modifying the 

noun " fire," according to Rule III. 

one is a limiting adjective modifying the noun " night," 

according to Rule III. 

wintry is a qualifying adjective modifying the noun 

"night," according to Rule III. 

rosy is a qualifying adjective modifying the noun " chiL 

dren," according to Rule III. 

surrounded is a participle modifying the noun "king," accord- 
ing to Rule III. 



EXERCISE 41. 

In the following sentences parse the adjectives and participles 
according to the model. 

1. The singing birds have come at last. 

2. Upon a barren steep, 
Above a stormy deep, 

I saw an angel watching the wild sea. 

3. At church, with meek and unaffected grace. 
His looks adorned the venerable place. 



124 SYNTAX. [sec. V. 

4. The large black cat killed tbe bird. 

5. The great, heavy, irou* bar fell on the unfortunate man, liilliug 

him instantly. 

6. The long rows of quaint black piles, shiny and wet and weather- 

worn, with funeral garlands of seaweed twisted about them 
by the late tide, might have represented an unsightly marine 
cemetery. 

Caution. — The following errors in the use of adjectives are to be 
carefully avoided : 

1. The use of " these " or " those " for " this " or " that *" with a sin- 

gular noun. Say " this sort of people," '* that kind of horses " — 
not " these sort of people," " those kind of horses." 

2. The use of the pronoun "them " for the adjective " those." Say 

"those carriages," "those apples" — not " tJiem carriages," 
"them apples." 



SPECIAL RULES UNDER RULE III. 

1. The Articles. 

Special Rtjle I. — When two or more nouns or adjectives refer to the 
same thing, the article is prefixed to the first only ; but if they refer to 
different things, the article should be repeated with each : thus — 

1. TJie governor and commander in chief has arrived [that is, one 

person]. 

2. The governor and the commander in chief have arrived [that is, 

two persons]. 

3. He lives in a long and narrow street [one street]. 

4. TJie rich and the poor have a common interest [two classes]. 

2. Comparison. 
Special Rule II. — An adjective is used in the comparative degree 

when two objects are compared, in the superlative when more than two : 
as — 

1. Gold is heamer than iron. 

2. Mercury is the heaviest of metals. 



* Noun used as an adjective. 



ADJECTIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 125 

3. Predicate Adjective. 

Special Rule III. — A predicate adjective relates to the subject of 
the verb : as — 

1. Iron is hard. 

2. The fruit seems ripe. 

Caution. — An adverb should not be used in place of a predicate ad- 
jective : thus — 

The rose smells sweetly ; The velvet feels smoothly. 

The adverbs "sweetly" and "smoothly" are here used incorrectly 
for the adjectives "sweet" and " smooth." 

The rose does not really "smell" or the velvet "feel ;" what is 
meant is that the rose is sweet to the smell or scent, and that the 
velvet id smooth to the touch. In each case it is the subject, not 
the verb, that is to be modified, and hence an adjective, not an 
adverb, is required. 

NOTE. — The following verbs, each containing the force of the verb 
" to be," require to be followed by a predicate adjective when the subject 
is to be modified : 

1. smell. 3. look. 5. become. 

2. feel. 4. taste. 6. grow. 



EXERCISE 4S. 

Correct the following examples. 

1. Them apples are sour. 

2. Those sort of people are always complaining. 

3. Hand me them slates. 

4. I am very fond of those sort of apples. 

5. The president, secretary, and treasurer have arrived. 

6. Benjamin Franklin, the philosopher and the statesman, lived in 

Philadelphia, 

7. I passed a man and boy on my way to town. 

8. Silk is a fine and delicate fiber. 



126 SYNTAX. [sec. 

9. This is tbe best house of the two. 

10. Which is the oldest, William or Edwin? 

11. The lemon tastes sourly. 

12. Miss Smith looks beautifully. 

13. Mary sings sweet. 



THE POSSESSIVE CASE. 
Rule IV. — A noun modifying another noun signifying a differ- 
ent thing is in the possessive case : as — 

Ladies' and children s shoes are sold here. 

Model for Parsing. 

ladies' is a common noun, of the plural number and posses- 
sive case, modifying " shoes," according to Kule IV. 

children's is a common noun, of the plural number and jiosses- 

sive case, modifying "shoes" according to Kule IV, 



EXERCISE 43. 
In the following sentences parse the possessive nouns accord- 
ing to the model. 

1. John's book was torn. 

3. My sister's hat was blown into the river. 

3. Have you ever seen Webster's Spelling Book? 

4. Eicher by far is the heart's adoration. 

5. Whitney's invention of the cotton gin was one of the most im- 

portant ever made. 

6. Order is heaven's first law. 

7. We bought the shoes at Sutherland's.''^ 

8. That book is Richard's, f 

9. Did the War of 1812 happen in Adam's:}: or in Madison's ad- 

ministration ? 
10. Let all the ends thou aim'st at l)e thy country's, thy (tod's, and 
truth's. 



f Supply store. t Supply book. t Supply administration. 



APPOSITION. 127 

Caution. — Never omit the sign of possessive in writing the posses- 
sive case of a noun, nor employ it in writing that of a pronoun : as — 
Write hoy's, hoys', child's, children's — not hoys, cMlds, chUdrens. 
Write hers, its, ours, yours, theirs — not hers, it's, our's, your's, 
theifs. 



SPECIAL RULE UNDER RULE IV. 
When two or more nouns in the possessive case are connected and de- 
note joint owners of the same thing, the sign of possessive is suffixed 
to the last noun only : as — 
"Ball and Black's store." 

But when they denote separate owners of different things, the sign of 
possessive is suffixed to each noun : as — 

" Webster's and Worcester's dictionaries." 



EXERCISE 44, 
Correct these examples by Rule TV. or Special Rule. 

1. "Ladle's and gentlemens boots and shoes" was painted over the 

door. 

2. Men and women's shoes are made here. 

3. The United States was at war during Madison and Lincoln's ad- 

ministrations. 

4. Did you ever hear of Mason's and Dixon's line ? 

5. Have you read any of Dickens or Thackeray's works ? 

6. That is Thomas kite. 

7. The blame is their's, not yours.' 



APPOSITION. 

Rule V. — A noun or pronoun used to explain another noun or 
pronoun is put by apposition in the same case : as — 

1. Milton, the English ^9(9^;!, wrote " Paradise Lost." 

3. The Christians were persecuted by Nero, the infamous emperor. 



128 SYNTAX. [sec. V. 

Model for Parsing. 
poet is a common noun, of the singular number and nominative 

case, in apposition with the subject " Milton." 
emperor. . . .is a common noun, of the singular number and objective 

case, in apposition with " Nero." 



EXERCISE 45. 
Parse the nouns in apposition. 

1. The potato, a root much used for food, was first grown in 

America. 
3. Franklin, the philosopher, discovered the identity of lightning 
and electricity. 

3. That useful animal, the camel, is found in Asia and Africa. 

4. Have you studied the geography of Asia and Africa, two grand 

divisions of the globe? 

5. Cicero, the greatest orator among the Romans, was put to death. 

6. I did not know him, the gentle boy. 

7. He shot the albatross, that strange bird. 

8. I, John Barclay, solemnly affirm. 

9. We, the people of the United States, declare this constitution. 
10. Do we not admire those brave men, the mountaineers of Swit- 
zerland ? 



THE OBJECTIVE CASE. 

RuLe A^I. — The object of a transitive verb is in the objective 
case: as — 

Follow mc. Who killed the deer? 

Model for Parsing. 
me is a personal pronoun, of the first person, singular number, 

and objective case, object of the transitive verb " follow," 

according to Rule VI. 
deer is a common noun, of the singular numl)er and objective 

case, object of the transitive verb " killed," according to 

Rule VI. 



THE OBJECTIVE CASE. 129 

EXERCISE 46. 

In the following sentences parse the objects according to the 
model. 

1. Fulton invented the steamboat. 

2. We have just received our presents. 

3. Me he restored, and him he hanged. 

4. They saw us as we entered the carriage. 

5. Who called her ? 

6. Whom did she call? 

7. She sang the song most beautifully. 

Caution. — Never use a pronoun in the nominative case as the object 
of a transitive verb : as — 

Who did you see at church? 

This is incorrect, because the pronoun "who," in the nominative 
case, is made the object of the verb "did see." It should be, " Whom 
did you see ? " . 



SPECIAL RULES UNDER RULE VI. 

Special Rule I. — The indirect object of a transitive verb may be 
in the objective case without a preposition : as — 
Give me a book. 
The indirect object shows that to ov for which anything is oris done. 

Special Rule II. — The infinitives or participles of transitive verbs 
may govern objects in the objective case : as — 

1. To love our enemies is a Christian duty. 

2. The thief, seeing the officer, ran away. 



EXERCISE 47. 

Correct these examples by the Caution. 

1. The teacher asked my sister and I to come. 

2. Is this the boy who you wanted ? 
8. Who did she marry ? 



130 SYNTAX. [SEC. 

4. They tliat honor me I will honor. 

5. She told somebody, but I don't know who. 

6. They who we injure we dislike. 



COMPLEMENT. 
Rule VII. — A noun or pronoun used as the complement of 
an intransitive or a passive verb is in the nominative case : as — 

1. Ctesar was a great general [nom. case]. 

2. The girl becomes a woman [nom. case]. 

3. Henry was chosen captain [nom. case]. 

4. It proved to be she [nom. case]. 

Model for Parsing. 

general (sentence 1). . .is a common noun, of the singular number and 
nominative case, complement of the intransi- 
tive verb " was," according to Rule VII. 

captain (sentence 3). . . is a common noun, of the singular number and 
nominative case, complement of the passive 
verb "was chosen," according to Rule VII. 

she (sentence 4) is a personal pronoun, of the third person, sin- 
gular number, feminine gender, and nomina- 
tive case, complement of the intransitive verb 
** to be," according to Rule VII. 



EXERCISE 48. 
a. 

In the following sentences parse the complements according 
to the model. 

1. Gold and silver are precious metals. 

2. Mecca is a holy city. 

3. John was called the beloved disciple. 

4. The boy seems a scholar. 

5. Study was always his delight. 

6. The food appears to be poison. 



ADVEKBS. 131 

7. If I were she I would improve my opportunities. 

8. Do you think it was she ? 

9. Men are but children of a larger growth. 

10. Webster and Ashburton were appointed commissioners to settle 

the boundary question. 

11. John proved a worthy successor to^his brother. 

12. Some mossy bank my couch must be, 
Some rustling oak * my canopy. 

b. 

Correct the violations of Rule VII. 

1. Who struck the bell ? It was him. 
3. It is them that you mean, not us. 

3. It could not possibly have been her. 

4. I took it to be she. 

5. Who do you imagine him to be ? 

6. It was him who issued the order, although the people for a long 

time disbelieved it to be he. 

7. I should try to do better if I were him. 



ADVERBS. 

Rule VIII. —An adverb modifies a verb, an adjective, or an- 
other adverb : as — 

1. Merrily, merrily went the bark. 

3. The frost is intensely severe. 

3. Pianists move their fingers Tiery quickly. 

Model for Parsing. 

merrily is an adverb, modifying the verb " went," according 

to Rule VIII. 

intensely is an adverb, modifying the adjective "severe," ac- 
cording to Rule VIII. 

very is an adverb, modifyiug the adverb " quickly," ac- 
cording to Rule VIII. 

* Supply Hiusi ha. 



132 SYNTAX. [sec. V. 

EXERCISE 49. 

In the following sentences parse the adverbs according to the 
model. 

1 . The very fairest flowers usually wither most quickly. 

2. Slowly and sadly we Taid him down. 

3. The pupil has answered very well. 

4. When are you coming ? 

5. We will know our lesson better to-morrow. 

6. She loved not wisely, but too well. 

Caution I. — Never use two negatives to express a negation : thus — 

I have not been nowhere. 
This is incorrect : "not nowhere " implies somewhere. It should be 
"I have been nowhere,'''' or " I have not been anywhere.'" 

Caution II. — Never use an adjective where an adverb is required : 
thus — 

. The army marched rapidly — (not rajncl). 

2. The horse trots icell — (not yood). 

3. The bird sings heautifidly — (not beautiful). 



SPECIAL RULES UNDER RULE VIII. 

Special Rule I. — Adverbs should be so placed in a sentence as to 
qualify the word intended : thus — 

1. He came to see me ordy once. 

2. He o?dy came to see me once. 

These two sentences have different meanings according as the ad- 
verb "only" is placed so as to qualify "once" or " came." The first 
means, "He came to see me only once" — not oftener. The second 
means, "He only came to see me once " — he did nothing else. 

Special Rih.e II. — A noun denoting direction, time, distance, value, 
etc., is in the objective case without a preposition : thus — 

1. The scholars have gone ho/nc — [modifying " have gone "J. 



133 



3. That girl is fifteen years old — [modifying "old "]. 

3. There is a pole twenty feet high — [modifying " high "]. 

NOTE. — A noun thus used is called the objective adverbial. 



EXERCISE 50. 
Correct the violations of Rule VIII. 

1. I don't like geography nohow. 

2. I did not get no dinner to-day. 

3. Can your father not do no work ? 

4. He did not say nothing. 

5. Pauline writes elegant. 

6. Joseph reads very slow. 

7. The wounded man began to rapidly fail. 

8. He was an uncommon tall man, with an exceeding long neck. 

9. I wish you to deeply ponder this, and to seriously consider it. 
10. Speak distinct, write careful, and spell correct. 



PRONOUNS. 



Rule IX. — ^A pronoun agrees in person, gender, and number 
with its antecedent or the word that it represents : thus — 

1. The lady went to Europe in spring, but s7ie has returned. 

2. The lady wJio went to Europe has returned. 

Model for Parsing. 

she is a personal pronoun, of the third person, singular number, 

and feminine gender, to agree with the noun " lady," which 

it represents, according to Rule IX. 
who. . . .is a relative pronoun, of the third person, singular number, 

and feminine gender, to agree with its antecedent "lady," 

according to Rule IX. 



134 SYNTAX. [SKC. V. 

EXERCISE 51. 

Parse che pronouns for person, gende?', and number.* 

1. The siiow fell fast, but it melted as fast. 

3. The French retreated, leaving their wounded behind them. 

3. My sister and I had scarcely reached ourf home when W3| set 

off again. 

4. Some plants are peculiar to certain districts : they are always 

found in them. 

5. The man who found the money restored it. 

6. The girls who were caught in the shower took refuge in the 

cave. 

7. This is the same book that I saw yesterday. 

8. The sea, which washed the shore, was covered with wrecks. 

9. I that denied thee gold will give my heart. 

Caution. — Do not use a personal pronoun as subject of a verb when 
the verb has already a noun for its subject : thus — 

Say " Richard went to school " — not " Richard ?ie went to school." 

NOTE. — In poetry both nouns and pronouns are often used: as, 
** The deck it was their field of fame." But in prose we should say, 
." The deck was their field of fame." 



SPECIAL RULES UNDER RULE IX. 

Special Rule I. — When a pronoun is used to represent two or more 
singular nouns, it must be singular or plural according as the verb agree- 
ing with the nouns is singular or plural : thus — 

1. Webster and Clay were distinguished for their oratory. 

2. The celebrated painter and sculptor died before he was fifty 

years of age. 

* The case of a pronoun depends on its use in the sentence. 

t In sentences of this nature, to enable the pupil to observe the usage the 
teacher has simply to ask what pronoun could be substituttid for "my sister and I." 
No special rule is required. 



PRONOUNS. 135 

8. Every act and every tliought has its effect on our cliaracter. 

4. Every boy and girl must take his or her own seat. * 

5. Will Jennie or Hattie sing us her favorite song ? 

Special Rule II. — A collective noun is represented by a pronoun in 
the singular number when the meaning of the noun is singular, but by a 
plural pronoun when the meaning is plural : thus — 

1. Congress will hold its session till march. 

2. The people were divided in their opinion. 

Special Rule III. — The relative pronoun that should be used in 
preference to who or which in the following cases : 

1. After the interrogative pronoun " who " : as, " Who ^^«^ heard it 
will believe it ? " 
' 2. After an antecedent preceded by the adjectives "some," " same," 
"any " : as, " Some people that were there said so ; " " This is 
the same man that you saw ; " "Do you know any person that 
thinks so ? " 

3. After an adjective in the superlative degree : as, "These apples 

are the best that can be found." 

4. After two antecedents, one requiring "who" and the other 

"which : " as, " The boy and the dog that you saw are gone." 

5. Whenever we wish to restrict the meaning of the antecedent. 

NOTE. — When ' ' who " or " which " means ' ' and he, " "and it, " etc. , 
it introduces an additional or explanatory statement ; "that " introduces 
a clause without which the antecedent is incomplete, and hence is re- 
^trictim. Thus — 

I heard the news from my friend, w7io [and he] heard it from the 
passengers tJiat [restrictive] arrived last night. 

Special Rule IV. — In the position of singular pronouns of different 

* In sentences like this, the selection of pronouns is often difficult. We must not 
use the plural pronoun "their," since the adjective "every " implies that each one 
is taken separately, and "his "" must be represented by a singular pronoun. " His 
or her own seat,'" though correct, is very formal ; and perhaps the best way is to 
change the form of expression, and say : " All boys and girls must take their own 



136 SYNTAX. [sec, V, 

persons, the second (you) precedes the others (HE, she, it, d; and the 
third (HE, SHE, iTj precedes the first {!) : as — 
" You aud he will go ; "He and /will go.'" 

NOTE. — A noun has the same place as a third personal pronoun : 
as, " He says he saw either my cousin or me." 

With the plural pronouns, " we" has the first place, "you" the sec- 
ond, and "they" the third : as, " We and thet/ start to-morrow." 



EXERCISE 52. 

Correct the violations of Rule IX. 

1. Every man is the architect of their own fortune. 

2. The army dragged themselves along through the mud. 

3. Every boy and girl must learn their lesson. 

4. The dog is a faithful animal when their master is kind to them. 

5. Anybody in their senses would have known better. 

6. A Franklin or a Jefferson renders great service to their country. 

7. I would have told him and you a piece of news if you had 

stayed. 

8. Every passenger must first buy their ticket. 

9. Richard he went to school. 

10. Eva she forgot her lunch basket. 

11. The dog it ran down the street. 

12. An invitation was sent to me and George. 



OBJECTIVE AFTER A PREPOSITION. 

Rule X. — 1 . A preposition joins a noun or pronoun to some 
other word. 

2. A noun or pronoun depending on a preposition is in the ob- 
jective case. 

I had a little daughter, 
And she was given to me 
To lead me gently backward 
To the heavenly Father's k^iee. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 137 



Model for Parsing. 
me is a personal pronoun, of tlie first person, singular number, 

and objective case, depending on the preposition "to," 

according to Rule X. 
knee is a common noun, of the singular number and objective 

case, depending on the preposition "to," according to 

Rule X. 

Caution. — When a pronoun is remote from the preposition on which 
it depends, care should be taken that it has the proper objective form : 
thus — 

Who does this slate belong to f 

This is incorrect : the pronoun ' ' who " in the nominative depends 
on the preposition "to ;" but according to Rule X. a noun or pronoun 
depending on a preposition should be in the objective case. Hence it 
should be " Whom does this slate belong tof "or " To whom does this 
slate belong ? " 



EXERCISE 53. 

Correct the violations of Rule X. 

1. Between you and I, all that glitters is not gold. 

2. Come along with William and I. 

3. So you must ride 

On horseback after we. 

4. He is a friend who I am greatly indebted to. 

5. Who did you give the apple to? 

6. We then saw that it was no other but he. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 
Rule XI. — Conjunctions connect words, phrases, or proposi- 
tions : as — 

Mars and Jupiter are planets — [joining two words]. 



138 SYNTAX. [sec. V. 

Nor up the lawn, nor at the wood was he — [joiuing two phrases]. 
He is poor, hut he is honest — [joiuing two propositions]. 

Model for Parsing. 

and is a conjunction, connecting the nouns " Mars " and "Jupi- 
ter," according to Rule XI. 

but is a conjunction, connecting the propositions " He is poor ' 

and " He is honest," according to Rule XI. 



EXERCISE 54. 

In the following sentences parse the conjunctions according 
to the model. 

1. The lion and the lamb shall lie down together, and a little child 

shall lead them. 

2. He departed from home, but he soon returned. 

3. He forsook his home and his friends. 

4. Lightly and brightly breaks away 
The morning from her mantle gray. 

5. The trees have lost their foliage, because autumn has come. 

6. Seasons return, but not to me returns 

Day, or the sweet approach of even or morn. 



NOMINATIVE INDEPENDENT AND ABSOLUTE — THE IN- 
TERJECTION. 

Rule XII. — I. A noun or pronoun whose case depends on no 
other word is put in the nominative case. 

1 1 . The interjection has no grammatical relation to the other 
parts of the sentence. 

I. .V noun or pronoun is used indepoideiith/ when it has no 
gi-animatical relation to the rest of the sentence. There are two 
principal uses of this construction : 

1. In naming a person or thing addressed : as — 

Plato, thou reasonest well. 

thou, who art with glory and majesty crowned 1 



ADDITIONAL EULES. 139 

2. When a noun or pronoun is joined with a participle to form 
a phrase not grammatically connected with the rest of the sen- 
tence: as — 

The storm having ceased [phrase independent], we departed. 

Model foe, Paesing. 

Plato ... .is a proper noun, in the nominative case independent, ac- 
cording to Rule XIL 

is an interjection, and has no grammatical relation to the 

other parts of the sentence, according to Rule XIL 

storm ... .is a common noun, of the singular number and nominative 
case, nominative absolute (with the participle "having 
ceased "), according to Rule XII. 



EXERCISE 55. 
Parse the nouns in the nominative independent or absolute. 

1. Begone, dull care, for thou and I can never agree. 

2. False wizard, avaunt ! 

3. The president having given his assent, the bill became a law. 

4. O Liberty, how many crimes are committed in thy name ! 

5. The old oaken bucket, the iron-bound backet. 
The moss-covered bucket that hangs in the well ! 

6. Our task being finished, we were allowed to play. 

7. Listen, my children, and you shall hear 
Of the midnight ride of Paul Revere. 



ADDITIONAL RULES. 

I. Rule for the Infinitive. 

An infinitive may be used as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb, and 
when dependent is governed by the word which it limits. 



140 SYNTAX. [SBO. V. 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1. To walk [or icalkiny'] is healthy — [used as a noun and subject of 

the verb "is"]. . 

2. I like to walk — [used as a noun and object of the verb " like "]. 

3. A time to laugh — [used as au ailjeetice and governed by the nouu 

"time," which it limits]. 

4. Permission to speak — [used as an adjective and governed by tli- 

noun "permission," which it limits]. 

5. I have come to see you — [used as an adcerh and governed by tli. 

verb " have come," which it limits]. 

6. Wonderful to relate — [used as an adcerh and governed by tho 

adjective "wonderful," which it limits]. 

II. Rule for the Subjunctive Mood. 

The subjunctive mood is used in a subordinate proposition when both 
contingency and futurity are expressed, or when the contrary fact is im- 
plied : as — 

1. If he continue to study, he will improve. 

2. If he were guilty [as he is not], he would suffer. 



NOTES. 

I. When a condition is assumed as real the statement is made 
by means of the indicative : as — 

1. If he has money [as it is assumed he has], he keeps it. 

2. If he is guilty [as he probably is], he will suffer. 

II. A good practical rule with respect to the use of the sub- 
junctive is that it is to be employed lohenever a j)otentiaI or a 
future auxiliary t's tmjjh'ed: thus — 

1. Though he [may] slay me, I will trust in him. 

2. Go thy way lest a worse fate [should] befall thee. 

3. If it were [should h] done, when 'tis done, then 'twere [would he], 

well it were [should he\ done quickly. 



EXAMPLES OF FALSE SYNTAX FOR CORRECTION. 141 



MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES OF FALSE SYNTAX FOR 
CORRECTION. 



1. The pyramids of Egypt has stood thousands of years. 

2. Neither the time nor the place of Homer's birth are known. 

3. My books was bought at Brown's the bookseller's. 

4. The hunter shot an owl, squirrel, eagle, and quail. 

5. An honest and an honorable man is always respected. 

6. This book is the largest and costliest of the two. 

7. Select either of the three books on the table. 

8. I, he, and you are all going there together. 

9. Who shall we invite to our party next week ? 

10. I think it was neither him nor her who did it. 

11. They say they will not give me no more money. 
13. You neither care for us or anybody else. 

13. Wisdom and prudence dwell with the lowly man. 

14. Neither of the boys were able to pass examination. 

15. If I was him I would accept the office. 

16. He hasn't got no money to pay for it with. 

17. Avarice is one of those passions which is never satisfied. 

18. The news have just been received by telegraph. 

19. Much depends on a man doing right. 

20. Are the visitors from the city arrived yet ? 



II. 

1. The teacher told every scholar to bring their books. 

2. Every boy and every girl were at school in season. 

3. Each one of us has as much as they can do. 

4. She sung very fine and looked very prettily. 

5. We should help them friends which help us. 

6. Who did you give the apple to ? 

7. London is larger than any city in the world. 

8. You cannot be her. 

9. Father brought some candy to divide between us all. 
10. Who did you say you went to visit ? 



142 



n. He is tlie ricliesl man who I know of. 

13. The ladle's parlor is fiuer than the gcntlemens'. 

13. It is more hard to work than play. 

14. Believe me, I'll never do so no more again. 

15. Will we have a vacation next week ? 

16. The number of inhabitants exceed forty million. 

17. I saw four horses, but did not buy either of them. 

18. Grammar learns us to write correct and speak proper. 

19. Was you living there at that time? 

20. I will drown, and nobody shall help me. 



COMPOSITION EXERCISES. 

From each of the following sets of subjects select the subject 
which suits you best, and write a composition about it. 



1. Housekeeping. 3. A husking. 5. Making wine. 

*'. Haying time. 4. Making cider. 6. Picking cotton. 

SECOND SET. 

Write some anecdote that you have read about any one of the 
following animals : 

1. The monkey. 3. The bear. 5. The fox. 

2. The wolf. 4. The dog. 6. The lion. 

THIRD SET. 

Write from memory a short sketch of one of the following 
stories : 

1. Bluebeard. 3. Cinderella. 5. Robinson Crusoe. 

2. Robin Hood. 4. Arabian Nights. 6. Jack the Giant Killer. 

FOURTH SET. 

Write a short description, telling how the following products 
are cultivated : 

1. Wheat. 3. Cotton. 5. The grape. 7. Hops. 

2. Corn. 4. Tobacco. 6. Flax. 8. Sugar. 



COMPOSITION EXERCISES. 143 

FIFTH SET. 

1. Story of a boy and a purse of gold. 
3. Story of a hunter and a bear. 
3. Story of a girl and her lamb. 

SIXTH SET. 

1. Autobiography of a ring. 

2. Autobiography of a cat. 

3. Autobiography of a knife. 

4. Autobiography of a mouse. 

SEVENTH SET. 

1. A ghost story. 2. A witch story. 

EIGHTH SET. 

On a subject chosen by yourself, write the best composition 
you can, as a specimen of your ability to write good English. 
After you have made the first draft, go carefully over it, cor- 
I'ecting errors and improving your sentences. Then copy the 
whole in your best style of penmanship. 



SECTION VI. 

ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 



LV.- DEFINITIONS. 



1. Subject and Predicate. 

I. Analysis is the separation of a sentence into the parts, or 
elements, of which it is composed. 

II. Synthesis is the process of constructing sentences from 
their elements. 

III. A sentence is a combination of words expressing a com- 
plete thought. 

IV. The principal elements of a sentence are the suhject and 
the predicate. 

The subject represents that of which something is stated : as, 
^^ Birds sing." 

The predicate tells what is stated of the subject : as, " Birds 

V. An adjunct, or modifier, is a word (or words) added to 
the subject or predicate to limit or modify its meaning : as, 
''The hig fire burns hrightlijy 

VI. The simple subject is the subject without adjuncts : as, 
" Fire burns." 

VII. The complete subject is the simple suT)ject with its ad- 
juncts : as, " The hig fire burns." 



SUIiJECT AND PKEDICATE. 145 

VIII. The simple predicate is the predicate verb : as, " The 
big fire hurns.'^ 

IX. The complete predicate is the predicate verb with its ad- 
juncts : as, " The big fire burns hrighthj^ 

X. A proposition is the" combination of a subject with a predi- 
cate, forming eitlier an independent or a dependent statement. 
Thus — 

1. Life is but au empty dream — [independent statement]. 

3. Tell me not that life is hut an empty dream — [" that life is Init 

an empty dream " a dependent statement, because the object 

of the verb "tell "]. 



EXERCISE 56. 
a. 

In the following sentences select, first the simple subjects aild 
predicates, and then the complete subjects and predicates. 

1. The army advanced rapidly. 

2. Great men are rare. 

3. The huntsman's horn awoke the echoes. 

4. Many friends of my youth have perished. 

5. The little bird s song is sweet. 

6. Franklin, the great philosopher, was an American. 

7. The bright fire soon warmed our hands. 

8. The garden has many beautiful flowers in full blossom. 

9. We must not eat unripe fruit. 

10. The apples will be ripe soon, 

11. Where has your brother gone ? 

12. How cool the air is ! 

In the following sentences, expand the subject by means of 
adjective words, adjective phrases, or both. 

Model : " The bridge spans the river." Enlarged. — " The great iron bridge, 
built by a skillful engineer, spans the river.'" 
1. The bridge spans the river. 

SWIN. LANG. LESS. — 10. 



146 ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. [SEO. 

2. The mechanic repaired the CD^nue. 

3. Snakes infest the country. 
4 Milton wrote " Paradise Lost." 

5. Birds fly. 

6. The fox stole the hens. 

7. Bees gather honey. 

8. Music soothes. 

9. The tire burns. 

10. The day is passed. 

11. Humboldt is dead. 

12. Books please me. 

C. 

In the following sentences, expand the predicate by means of 
adverbs, adverbial phrases, or both. 

Model : " We go to swim.''' Enlarged. — " We often go to swim iu the nver." 

1. We go to swim. 

2. The moon shines. 

3. They learn their lessons. 

4. The American soldiers fought. 

5. James wrote a letter. 

6. It is pleasant to watch the stars. 

7. We took shelter. 

8. The fire burns. 

9. Bees gather honey. 

10 The microscope shows us animalcules. 

11. Birds fly. 

12. Fishes swim. 



2. Elements of the Sentence. 
I. A phrase is a combination of related words forming an ele- 
ment of a sentence. 

1. A phrase is generally introduced by a preposition, a par- 
ticiple, or an infinitive : as — 






ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE. 147 

The study of Idsiory improves the inind — [phrase introduced by a 
prej)osition]. 

The hdlloon, filled icith gas, floated up in the air — [phrase intro- 
duced by a participle]. 

To forget an injury is the mark of a noble mind — [phrase intro- 
duced by an infinitive]. 

2. A phrase is equivalent to a noun, an adjective, or an ad- 
verb. "When equivalent to a noun it is called a noun phrase ; 
when equivalent to an adjective, an adjective phrase ; when 
equivalent to an adverb, an adverhial phrase. 

II. A clause is a dependent, or subordinate, proposition, in^ 
troduced by a connective : as — 

1. He will learn if you teach Mm. 

2. I shall be ready lolien you call. 

III. Sentences are classed as simple, complex, and compound. 

A simple sentence consists of one independent proposition : 
' as — 

The earth rotates. 

A complex sentence consists of one independent (or principal) 
proposition and one or more clauses : as — 

We succeed [principal statement] because we persevere [clause], 

A compound sentence consists of two or more independent 
propositions : as — 

The fields are fragrant and the woods are green. 

IV. According to their use, sentences are classed as declara- 
tive, interrogative, imperative, and exclamative. 

U^" For the definition of these terms, see page 23. 



148 ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. [sEC. VI. 

LVI. — ANALYSIS OF SIMPLE SENTENCES. 
1. Nature of the Simple Sentence. 

I. The simple subject of a simple sentence consists of a word 
or a phrase. 

( Gold is a metal — [uoiin subject]. 
Word Subject .... J We hear the music — [pronoun subject]. 

( To tcalk is good exercise — [infinitive subject]. 

i Where to go is the question. 
Phrase Subject. . . ] Fishing for trout is fine fun. 

( To die for one's country is sweet. 

II. The simple subject of a simple sentence may be modified 
by adjective ivords or adjective phrases. 

' III. An adjective word may be — 

1. An adjective: as, ^^ bright skies ;" "some books." 

2. A noun in the possessive case : as, "the hunts nuut s horn ; " 
''the sun's rays." 

3. A noun in apposition: as, "Franklin, i\\Q j^^i^i^osopher '/^ 
"Alexander, the coppersmith^ 

IV. An adjective phrase may be introduced by a preposition 
or a participle : as — 

1. The love [subject] of money is the root of all evil. 

2. Exhausted by fatigue, we [subject] lay down to rest. 

V. The simple predicate of a simple sentence may take an 
object or other complement (predicate nominative or predicate 
adjective) : as — 

1. Carpenters build houses — [object]. 

2. We ARE scholars — [complement or predicate nominative]. 

3. Glass IS transparent — [complement or predicate adjectivej. 



ANALYSIS OF SIMPLE SENTENCES. 149 

VI. The simple predicate of a simple sentence may be modi- 
fied by — 

1. An adverb : as, "The horse ran swiftly.^' 

2. An adverbial phrase : as, " Great men lived during the 
Revolution.''^ 



2. Directions for the Analysis of Simple Sentences. 

1. Name the simple subject. 

2. Name the simple predicate. 

3. Name the adjuncts or modifiers of the subject. 

4. Name the complete subject. 

5. Name the adjuncts or modifiers of the predicate. 

6. Name the complete predicate. 



NOTES. 

I. When a verb has an object or other complement, the predicate 
verb is first to be mentioned, then the object or complement with its 
adjuncts (if any). 

II. A noun used as the object or complement of a verb mav itself be 
modified by an adjective word or phrase. 

III. A subject having no adjuncts may be called the subject simple 
and complete. So with the predicate. 



Models for Analyzing Simple Sentences. 

I. America, called the New World, ivas discovered in 1492. 

This is a simple declarative sentence. The simple subject is 
"America." The simple predicate is "was discovered." The simple 
subject is modified by "called the New World," an adjective phrase. 
The complete subject is "America, called the New World." 

The simple predicate is modified by "in 1492," an adverbial phrase. 
The complete predicate is "was discovered in 1492." 



150 ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. [SEC. VI. 

2. You have prepared your lessons carefully. 

This is a simple declarative sentence. The subject, simple and 
complete, is "you." The simple predicate is "have prepared," which 
has for its object "lessons." "Lessons" is modified by the adjunct 
"your." 

The simple predicate is modified by "carefully," an adverb. The 
complete predicate is "have prepared your lessons carefully." 

3. Will you ivalk to-day ? 

This is a simple interrogative sentence. The subject, simple and 
complete, is "you." The simple predicate is " will walk." 

The simple predicate is modified by the adverb " to-day." The com- 
plete predicate is "will walk to-day." 

4. Bring that large volume here. 

This is a simple imperative sentence. The subject, simple and com- 
plete, is "you" (understood). The simple predicate is " brin^," which 
has for its object "volume." "Volume" is modified by the adjuncts 
" that " and " large." 

The simple predicate is modified by the adverb "here." The com- 
plete predicate is " bring that large volume here." 



EXERCISE 57. 

Analyze the following simple sentences. 

1. The sun shines. 

2. Bees gather honey. 

3. The fire burns. 

4. The big tire burns brightly to-night. 

5. The study of history improves the mind. 
C. A rolling stone gathers no moss. 

7. Sailing over the Atlantic, Cabot reached Labrador. 

8. Under a spreading chestnut tree the village smithy stands. 

9. All men are mortal. 

10. Where are you going this summer?* 

* Call "this summer" an adverbial phrase. 



SYNTHESIS OF SIMPLE SENTENCES. 151 

11. The hero's harp is silent. 

13. Milton, the English poet, wrote "Paradise Lost." 

13. Light the gas. 

14. The stars are worlds. 

15. Whitney, the inventor of the cotton gin, was born in New 

England. 

16. Can Honor's voice provoke the silent dust ? 

17. Truth, crushed to earth, will rise again. 

18. The sloth in its wild state passes its life on trees. 

19. The Egyptians embalmed the bodies of their dead. 

20. Some birds of prey, having secured their victim, fly with it verj 

swiftly to their nests. 

21. Sound the loud timbrel o'er Egypt's dark sea. 



LVII. — SYNTHESIS OF SIMPLE SENTENCES. 

1. Punctuation. 

The comma and the terminal mark, (period, point of interroga- 
tion, and point of exclamation,) are the only marks used in punc- 
tuating simple sentences. 

Rule 1. — Words of the same class in a series, taken individually or 
in pairs, are set off by commas : thus — 

1. The calm, cool, resolute man presented a noble example of daring, 

2. Russia exports wheat, tallow, flax, and hides. 

NOTE. — But two coordinate words joined by and or or are not to be 
separated. 

Rule II. — A phrase, unless very closely connected with the word to 
which it belongs, is set off by a comma : thus — 

1. In s'pite of cdl cUfficvlties, tbey resolved to make the attempt. 

2. The Indian monarch, stunned and bewildered, saw his faithful 

subjects falling around him, 

NOTE. — But in the sentence, "Our house is beautifully situated 
about three miles from town," the phrase "about three miles from 
town" is too closely joined in construction to be separated by a comma. 



152 ANALYSIB AND SYNTHESIS. [SEC. VI. 

Rui.E III. — In a succession of phrases, each phrase is set off by a 
comma: thus — 

At daybreak, the combined fleets were distinctly seen from the 
Victory's head, formed in a close line of battle ahead, on the star- 
board tack, about twelve miles to leeward, and standing to the south. 

Rule IV. — Adverbs like however, indeed, therefore, etc., being 
equivalent to phrases, are generally set off by commas : thus — 

1. The story, however, was pronounced untrue. 

2. No man, indeed, is always happy. 

Rule V. — Words or phrases in apposition are set off by commas : 
thus — 

1. James Watt, the improver of the steam engine, was a native of 

Greenock. 

2. Washington, commander in chief of the American army, won the 

battle of Trenton. 

Rule VI. — The nominative independent (nominative of address) is 
set off by the comma : thus — 

Siceet Auburn, loveliest village of the plain. 



2. Construction. 
A series of detached statements may be combined into a 
simple sentence. Thus — 

"" Three vessels sailed. 

They were small vessels. 

They sailed from Palos. 

Palos is a seaport town. 

It is in Spain. 

They sailed on the 3d of August. 
^ It was in the year 1492. 

Combined. — On the 3d of August, 1492, three small vessels 
sailed from Palos, a seaport town in Spain. 



Separate Statements.. 



SYNTHESIS OF SIMPLE SENTENCES. 153 

EXERCISE 58. 

Combine each set of statements into a simple sentence, as in 
the model. 

1. Columbus returned to Spain. 
He returned in 1493. 

He bad spent several months in exploring the delightful re= 

gions. 
Tbese regions were now first tbrown open to European eyes. 

2. Boston was occupied by soldiers. 
Tbis was in tbe spring of tbe year. 
Tbe soldiers were Britisli. 

Tbere w^ere tbree tbousand of tbem. 
They were commanded by Greneral Gage. 

3. New York is a great city. 
It is a commercial city. 

It is situated on New York Bay. 

It is situated at the mouth of tbe Hudson River. 

4. I have a dress. 

, It is a pretty dress. 
It is a blue dress. 
It is made of silk. 
It is cut in tbe latest fashion. 
' It is trimmed witb lace. 

5. Charles XII. of Sweden was defeated. 
He was defeated at Pultowa. 

.It was by Peter the Great be was defeated. 
Peter tbe Great was Czar of Russia. 

6. The bouse was burned. 
It was a wbite bouse. 
It was on tbe bill. 

It bad a beautiful garden. 

7. Tbe smugglers came to tbe hermit's cell. 
Tbey came on tbe tbird day. 

They came by the direction of tbe peasants. 



154 ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. [SEC. VI. 

8. A balloon is a bag. 
It is a thin bag. 
It is a light bag. 
It is made of varnished silk. 
It is generally shaped like a globe. 
It is filled with a fluid lighter than common air. 



LVIII.— ANALYSIS OF COMPLEX SENTENCES. 
1. Nature of the Complex Sentence. 

I. A complex sentence consists of one independent, or princi- 
pal, proposition and one or more clauses. 

II. Connectives. — Clauses are joined to principal statements, 
by- 

1. Subordinate conjunctions : as — if, that, though, unless. 

2. Relative pronouns : namely — who, which, that, and what. 

3. Conjunctive adverbs : as — when, where, ivhile, why. 

III. There are three kinds of clauses : 

1. Noun CLAUSE. 2. Adjective clause. 3. Adverbial clause. 

IV. A noun clause is a clause used as a noun ; it may be the 
subject or the object of a sentence : as — 

1. When he will go is uncertain. 

2. Do you remember what I said ? 



EXERCISE 59. 
a. 

Point out the noun clauses in the following sentences, and tell 
whether they are subjects or objects. 

1. They soon saw that the elephant's mouth was underneath his 

trunk. 

2. No one could tell what had become of him. 



ANALYSIS OF COMPLEX SENTENCES, 155 

3. That we get leather from skins is known to every one. 

4. Where Homer was born is not known. 

5. Every one thought thQ tree would be blown down. 

b. 

Supply rijoun clauses in the following sentences : 

1. Do you not remember . . . . ? 

2. Most people know .... 

3. How could she hear ? 

4. People used to think .... 

5fc He asked one of the masons to tell him .... 



V. An adjective clause is a clause used as an adjective to 
modify a noun : as — 

Those birds that live on other animals are called birds of prey. 



EXERCISE 60. 



Point out the adjective clauses, and tell what nouns they qualify. 

1. I know a story of an eagle, which you will like to hear. 

2. The crowd that had gathered round to welcome her now stood 

back. 

3. Franklin, who was a great philosopher, was born in Boston. 

4. We get silk from a caterpillar which is called the silkworm. 

5. The house where Shakespeare was born still stands. 

6. Among the foreigners who repaired to Egypt to buy corn were 

the brethren of Joseph. 

7. The Scots, who advanced to York, ravaged the country with 

unsparing fury. 

8. The minutest animal that is attentively examined affords a thou- 

sand wonders. 

9. The heart of Robert Bruce, which was preserved in a silver case, 

was consigned to the care of Douglas. 



156 ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. [SEC. VI. 

b. 

Supply adjective clauses. 

1. I will show you the book .... 

2. The hides of oxen and sheep are sold to the tanner 

3. The milk and the butter are obtained from the cow. 

4. That is the house .... 

5. Are these the acorns . . . . ? 



VI. An adverbial clause is a clause used as an adverb to 
modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs : as — 
The daisy shuts her eye when the dew begins to fall. 



EXERCISE 61. 
a. 

Point out the adverhml clauses. 

1. We shall sail when the moon rises. 

2. The sugar cane is pressed between heavy rollers till all the juice 

runs out. 

3. As they drew near the nest, the eagle dashed by. 

4. If we study, we shall improve. 

5. You will not succeed unless you persevere. 

b. 

Supply adverbial clauses. 

1. We shall be glad to see you .... 

2. Come .... 

3. I will tell you a secret .... 

4. Charles had not been five minutes on the ice .... 

5. We shall learn a great many things .... 

c. 

Write a complex sentence on each of the following words : 

1. Ants. 3. The buffalo. 5. Scholars. 

2. Music. 4. Columbus. 6. Geography. 



ANALYSIS OF COMPLEX SENTENCES. 157 

2. Directions for the Analysis of Complex Sentences. 

In analyzing complex sentences, proceed as follows : 

1. Tell which is the principal statement. 

2. Tell which is the clause. 

3. Tell what connective joins the clause \7ith the principal 
statement. 

4. Then analyze the principal statement and the clause, as in 
the case of simple sentences. 

Model for Analyzing Complex Sentences. 

When the war closed, Washington retired to Mount Vernon. 

This is a complex sentence. The principal statement is, "Wash- 
ington retired to Mount Vernon." The clause (or subordinate state- 
ment) is, "When the war closed." The connective is the conjunctive 
adverb "when." The subject of the principal statement is "Wash- 
ington." The predicate is "retired." The predicate is modified by 
the adverbial phrase "to Mount Vernon." The subject of the clause 
is "the war." The predicate is "closed." 



EXERCISE 62. 

Analyze the following complex sentences : 

1. If you would be happy, you must be active. 

2. We get silk from a caterpillar which is called the silkworm. 

3. I shall be ready wlien you call me. 

4. He is proud that he is a soldier. 

5. Wait till you see. 

6. The sea, after it had spent its fury, became calm. 

7. When the door was opened the people crowded into the hall. 

8. And when he next doth ride abroad, 
May I be there to see. 

9. Call upon me when you have time to spare. 
10. Can you tell me where they have laid him ? 



158 ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. [SEC. 

11. He wlio ascends to mountain tops shall find 

The loftiest peaks most wrapt in clouds and snow. 
13. The boy stood on the burning deck, 
Whence all but him had fled ; 
The flame that lit the battle's wreck, 
Shone round him o'er the dead. 



LIX. — SYNTHESIS OF COMPLEX SENTENCES 
1. Punctuation. 
Rule I. — Introductory adverbial clauses are, in general, set off from 
the principal statement by a comma : thus — 

1. Before the storm began, we had built a camp fire. 

2. If this he treason, make the most of it. 

Rule II. — Explanatory adjective clauses, introduced by WHO or 
WHICH [= *'and he," "and it," etc.], are set off by commas. Restric- 
tive clauses, introduced by THAT or an equivalent connective, require no 
commas : thus — 

EXPLANATORY CLAUSES. 

1. The king, icJio [= and he] was a merciful ruler, forgave the 

offense. 

2. The Missouri, which [= and it] rises in the Rocky Mountains, is 

the chief tributary of the Mississippi. 

RESTRICTIVE CLAUSES. 

1. That is the man wJio aided me. 

2. It is the tallest tree tJiat I ever saw. 

Rule III. — A noun clause used as the subject of a verb is set off from 
the verb by a comma : thus — 

1, That the earth rotates on its axis, was denied by the ancients. 

2. That illiterate men should he intelligent voters, is not to be 

expected. 

Rule IV. — A noun clause used as the object of a transitive verb re- 
quires no comma : thus — 
I have told you who he is. 



SYNTHESIS OF COMPLEX SENTENCES. 



159 



Rule V. — When the sentence is introduced by the pronoun IT, and 
the noun clause is put after the verb, no comma is required : thus — 

It is not to be expected that indolent pupils should rank high in 
their class. 



Rule VI. — Commas must be used to set off the principal statement 
when it comes between the divided parts of an objective clause : thus — 

1. He expected, it seems, to surprise the enemy. 

2. The man was murdered, it is supjjosed, by a band of Apaches. 

3. "Beautiful creature," said the cunning fox, "you sing like a 

nightingale." 



2. Construction. 

Two or more simple sentences may be combined into a com- 
plex sentence in various ways : thus — 



1. I have a canary bird. His name 

is Jack. 

2. The boys went a-fishing. They 

had good luck. 

3. There is the boy. I spoke to 

him yesterday. 

4. Tea is a refreshing drink. It is 

used by all nations. 

5. I will go on one condition. You 

must go with me. 

6. He did not improve. The reason 

was idleness. 

7. Riches are good. Wisdom is 

better. 

8. Blanche is a good scholar. Wil- 

lie is an equally good scholar. 



COMPLEX. 

1. I have a canary bird icliose name 

is Jack. 

2. The boys icJio went a-fishing had 

good luck. 

3. This is the boy that I spoke to 

yesterday. 

4. Tea is a refreshing drink ichich 

is used by all nations. 

5. I will go if you will. 

6. He did not improve because he 

was idle. 

7. Wisdom is better than riches 

[are]. 

8. Willie is as good a scholar as 

Blanche [is]. 



160 ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. [SEC. VI. 



Examples ob' Syn'thesis. 
'' 1. The Spaniards were surrounded by the natives. 
Seoarate ^' "^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^^ their landing. 
^ + ^ ^' ^^^^^ natives were a simple-minded race of tawny 

savages. 
^ 4. They gazed with astonishment on the newcomers. 

Combined. — After their landing, the Spaniards were sur- 
rounded by the natives, a simple-minded race of tawny savages, 
who gazed with astonishment on the newcomers. 

f 1. Napoleon Bonaparte surrendered himself to the 

Separate ^''^'^^' 

o. ^ . ■( 2. He had been defeated at Waterloo. 

Statements. K. tx -■,:,■, , t, • • i ,.,,-. ^ 

I 3. He was exiled by the British to the island of St. 

1^ Helena. 

Combined. — After he had been defeated at Waterloo, Na- 
poleon Bonaparte surrendered himself to the British, by whom 
he was exiled to the island of St. Helena. 

NOTE. — When there are several adverbial clauses, use one or more 
of them to introduce the sentence, instead of crowding them all to- 
gether after the main verb. 



EXERCISE 63. 
Combine the groups of statements into complex sentences as 
m the model. 

1. A crow had seized a piece of cheese. 
He flew up with it to a high tree. 

Here he quietly prepared to enjoy his repast. 

2. The King of England granted these men a great slice of terri- 

tory in America. 
This king's name was James I. 
This territory was claimed by the English. 



SYNTHESIS OF COMPLEX SENTENCES. 16] 

3. A sea captain entered the Narrows. 

He did this after sailing along the American coast. 
He sailed in a little craft called the "Half Moon." 
The name of this captain was Henry Hudson. 

4. Our country had to carry on a severe struggle with the French 

in America. 
This was during the time that our country belonged to England. 

5. The British rulers passed a law. 

They did this to get money out of the Colonies. 
This law was that no writing should be held valid in the court 
unless it was written on stamped paper. 

6. Boston was occupied by British soldiers. 

They had been sent out to overawe the patriots. 

7. The patriots began to make preparations for war. 

They did this because they saw the king was bent on forcing 
them to obey his unjust laws. 

8. Washington hemmed in the British very closely in Boston. 
He did this so closely that they came near starving. 

9. The Declaration of Independence was put forth by the Conti- 

nental Congress. 
This Congress was the real government of this country at that 
time. 

10. The Declaration of Independence was written by Thomas Jef- 

ferson. 
He was afterwards President of the United States. 

11. The old bellman rang the bell. 

He rang it when the Declaration was adopted. 
This bell proclaimed "liberty throughout all the land, unto the 
inhabitants thereof." 

12. The leading orator of Virginia was Patrick Henry. 

He excited the people to rise against the tyranny of Great 
Britain. 

8WIN. LANG. LESS. — 11. 



16'2 ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. [SEC. VI. 

13. Lafayette crossed the ocean. 

He did this to give his sword to America. 

He was born to high rank in France. 

When he crossed the ocean he was only nineteen years of age. 

14. The scholar will learn something. 
He will learn it when he grows up. 

What he will learn is that the seeds of the War of Secession 
were sown long before the men who waged the war were 
born. 

15. Columbus waited seven years. 

He then turned his back on the court of Spain. 
He resolved to apply to the King of France. 

18. Columbus was overtaken by a messenger. 
This was while on his way to France. 
The messenger was sent by the Queen of Spain to call him back. 



LX. — ANALYSIS OF COMPOUND SENTENCES. 
1. Nature of the Compound Sentence. 

I. The compound sentence consists of two or more independ- 
ent propositions. 

II. Compound sentences may consist of two or more simple 
sentences, or of two or more complex sentences, or of a simple 
sentence combined with a complex sentence : thus — 

1. The fields are fragrant and the woods are green. 
3. I speak not to disprove what Brutus spoke, 

But here I am to speak what 1 do know. 
3. The evil that men do lives after them ; [but] 

The good is oft interred with their bones. 

III. The leading statements of a compound sentence are gen- 
erally connected by a coordinate conjunction expressed or un- 
derstood. 



ANALYSIS OF COMPOUND SENTENCES. 163 

NOTES. 

I. The principal coordinate conjunctions are and, also, or, nor, 
hut, however, notwithstanding, yet, and/o?*. 

II. Some common adverbial connectives in compound sen- 
tences are again, besides, then, when, where, ivhence, on the other 
hand, for all that. 

III. A relative pronoun or a conjunctive adverb, when it 
contains the force of a7id, may connect the statements of a com- 
pound sentence : thus — 

1. I met General Jackson, tcho [and he] invited me to enter his head- 

quarters. 

2. At length the reenforcements arrived on the field, when [and then] 

the terrible struggle was renewed. 



2. Directions for Analysis. 

In analyzing a compound sentence^ mention the principal 
statements, and state what conjunction connects them ; then 
proceed to analyze the separate statements as in the analysis of 
simple sentences. 

Model fok Analysis. 

The Revolutionary War lasted for seven years, and it ended in 
1872. 

This is a compound sentence. It is composed of the two statements 
"The Revolutionary War lasted for seven years" and "It ended in 
1783." These statements are connected by the coordinate conjunction 
•' and." 

The first statement is, " The Revolutionary War lasted for seven 
years." The simple subject is " war." The subject is enlarged by the 
adjectives "the" and "Revolutionary." The simple predicate is 
"lasted." The predicate is enlarged by the adverbial phrase "for 
seven years." 

The second statement is, " It ended in 1782." The subject is "it" 
— not enlarged. The simple predicate is "ended." The predicate is 
enlarged by the adverbial phrase " in 1783." 



164 ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. [SKC. VI. 

EXERCISE 64. 

Analyze the following compound sentences. 

1. The country was rich, and the city was the center of its wealth. 

2. The man recovered from the bite, but the dog died. 

3. The army must gain a victory, or our cause will be ruined. 

4. All the world is a stage, and all the men and women [are] merely 

players. 

5. There were no more worlds to conquer ; therefore Alexander 

wept. 

6. Prosperity did not unduly elate Washington, nor did misfortune 

cast him down. 

7. A great war may be ver,y glorious, but it is also very miserable. 

8. By the invention of the cotton gin, cotton was crowned king, 

and a new era was opened for America. 

9. Justice was administered under the shade of forest trees, and 

the jury sat upon a log. 

10. There was timber to fell, there were fences to build, and there 

were fields to plough. 

11. Prosperity makes friends, but adversity tries them. 
13. Night's candles are burned out, and jocund day 

Stands tiptoe on the misty mountain tops. 



LXI. — SYNTHESIS OF COMPOUND SENTENCES. 

1. Punctuation of the Compound Sentence. 

Rule 1. — Closely connected principal statements, unless much con- 
tracted, are, in general, set off by a comma, and are always so set off 
when there are more than two principal statements : thus — 

1. Napoleon Bonaparte was of Italian blood, and was a Corsican 

by birth. 

2. I came, I saw, I conquered. 



SYNTHESIS OF COMPOUND SENTENCES. 165 

Rule II. — Loosely connected principal statements, when long or 
when subdivided by a comma, are separated by a semicolon : tlius — 

1. The history of the Orient is the history of dynasties ; the history 

of Greece and Rome is the history of the people. 

2. The Greeks were indebted to the Phoenicians for the alphabet ; 

the Romans adopted the Greek alphabet with some changes ; 
the Roman alphabet is the basis of our modern alphabet. 

Rule III. — When a compound sentence is elliptical, the omission 
of the principal statement is marked by a semicolon before each of a 
series of clauses : thus — 

England has to undergo the revolt of the colonies ; [England has] 
to submit to defeat and separation ; [ ? ] to shake under the vol- 
cano of the French Revolution ; [ ] to grapple and fight for the 
life with her gigantic enemy, Napoleon ; [ ] to gasp and rally 
after that tremendous struggle. 

Rule IV. — Principal statements and clauses are punctuated accord- 
ing to the rules for the simple and the complex sentence. 



2. Construction. 

Separate statements may be combined into a compoimd sen- 
tence in various ways : thus — 

SEPARATE STATEMENTS. COMBINED. 



1. The day was cold. The day was 

stormy. 

2. Animals live. Animals grow. 

Animals feel. Animals move. 

3. I will go. You must not go. 

4. You cannot go. I cannot go. 

5. You must work. The alterna- 

tive is to starve. 



1. The day was cold and stormy. 

2. Animals live, grow, feel, and 

move. 

3. I will go, but you must not. 

4. Neither you nor I can go. 

5. You must either work or starve. 



166 ANALYSIS AXl) SYNTHESIS. [SFX'. VI. 

Examples of Synthesis. 

Separate j The sun is the center of the solar system. 
Statements. | The sun is the great source of light and heat. 
Combined. — The sun is the center of the solar system, and is the 
great source of light and heat. 

f You can go to school. 
Separate J You are well. 
Statements. 1 I must stay at home. 

(^ I am sick. 
Combined. — You can go to school, for you are well ; but I must stay 
at home because I am sick. 



EXERCISE 65. 

Combine the separate statements into compound sentences. 

1. Plants live. Plants grow. Plants die. Plants do not feel. 

Plants do not have the power of voluntary motion. 

2. Labor and learning may toil for eloquence. Labor and learning 

will toil in vain. 

3. Eloquence must exist in the man. Eloquence must exist in the 

subject. Eloquence must exist in the occasion. 

4. Will it be the next week ? Will it be next year ? 

5. I struck the man in self-defense. I explained this to the police 

judge. He would not believe me. Witnesses were called to 
support my statements. He committed me to prison. He had 
no right to do this. 

6. Alexandria was one of the most celebrated cities of antiquity. 
It was anciently the residence of the kings of Egypt. 

7. Boston is a great American seaport. 

San Francisco is also a great American seaport. 
New l^'ork is a seaport greater than both together. 

8. The wolf could not run fast. 

The sheep's clothing was hanging about his legs. 

He was detected. 

He was shot by one of the men. 



EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION OF SENTENCES. 



le 



9. At last the capital of Palestine rose on their view. 

Palestine was lovely even in her desolation [adj. phrase, limit- 
ing " Palestine"]. 

The knights wet the turf with tears of mingled joy and grief. 

They did so when springing from their saddles [participial 
phrase, limiting "knights"]. 

10. We revere Washington [why?]. 
He was a patriot. 

We execrate Arnold [why ?]. 
He was a traitor. 

11. Bois-Grilbert turned his countenance towards Rebecca. 
He then exclaimed [something]. 

He did so, looking fiercely at Ivanhoe. 

He exclaimed, "Dog of a Saxon ! take thy lance, and prepare 
for the death thou hast drawn upon thee." 



LXII. — EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION OF SENTENCES. 
1. Simple to Complex. 

Direction. — A simple sentence may be expanded into a com- 
plex sentence by changing a word or phrase into a clause : thus — 



SIMPLE. 

1. We arrived there after sunset. 

2. Honest boys will be trusted. 

3. I expected him to be there. 

4. I told you to go. 

5. I supposed it to be him. 

6. The attack having failed, the 

enemy withdrew. 



COMPLEX. 

1. We arrived there after the sun 

had set. 

2. Boys who are honest will be 

trusted. 

3. I expected that he would be 

there. 

4. I told you that you should go. 

5. I supposed that it was he. 

6. After the attack had failed, the 

enemy withdrew. 



168 ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. [SEC. VI. 

EXERCISE 66. 

Expand the following simple sentences into complex sentences. 

1. Quarrelsome persons are disagreeable. 

2. The ancients believed the earth to be the center of the universe. 

3. With patience, he might have succeeded. 

4. The utility of the telegraph is evident to all. 

5. The manner of his escape is a profound mystery. 

6. Mary being ill, we had to go to the picnic without her. 

7. I supposed the birds to be sandpipers. 

8. In collecting honey, bees do not confine themselves solely to 

flowers. 

9. At the conclusion of the battle, the commander began to count 

his loss. 
10. The discoveries of Livingstone, one of the greatest travelers of 
modern times, have taught us much about the interior of 
Africa. 



2. Complex to Compound. 

Direction. — A complex sentence may be expanded into a com- 
pound sentence by changing a clause into a principal proposition : 

thus — 

COMPLEX. COMPOUND. 



1. When he had become exhausted, 

the swimmer was drowned. 

2. As Mary was ill, we had to go 

to the picnic without her. 

3. The Scots, who advanced to 

York, ravaged the country 
with unsparing fury. 



The swimmer became exhaust- 
ed, and he was drowned. 

Mary was ill, and hence we had 
to go to the picnic without her. 

The Scots advanced to York, 
and ravaged the country with 
unsparing fury. 



EXERCISE 67. 
Expand the following complex sentences into compound. 

1. As the wind was fair, the vessel put to sea. 

2. Beyond the Mississippi are vast prairies, over which roam great 

herds of buffalo. 



EXPANSION AND CONTKAGTION OF SENTENCES. 169 

3. The heart of Robert Bruce, which was preserved in a silver case, 

was consigned to the care of Douglas. 

4. The Rhone, which flows into the Lake of Greneva, emerges from 

it at the town of that name. 

5. The coral insect, which barely possesses life, is hourly creating 

habitations for man [and yet it, etc.]. 

6. The men ran away because they became frightened. 

7. When his reenf orcements arrived, Napoleon ordered an advance 

along the whole line. 



3. Compound to Complex. 
Direction. — A compound sentence may be contracted into a 
complex sentence by changing a principal proposition into a clause : 

thus — 

COMPOUND. COMPLEX. 



1. The sea spent its fury, and then 

it .became calm. 

2. The earth is round, and no one 

doubts it. 

3. He was only a boy, and hence 

he was pardoned. 



1. The sea, when it had spent its 

fury, became calm. 

2. No one doubts that the earth is 

round. 

3. As he was only a boy, he was 

pardoned. 



EXERCISE 68. 

Contract the following compound sentences into complex sen- 
tences. 

1. The light infantry joined the main body, and the British troops 

retreated precipitately into Boston, 

2. He was a worthless man, and he could not command the respect 

of his neighbors. 

3. Egypt is a wonderfully fertile country, and it is annually over- 

flowed by the river Nile. 

4. The house was very large, and consequently there was little 

comfort in it. 

5. The battle was concluded, and tb^en the commander begai* to 

estimate his loss. 



170 ANALYST.^ AND SYNTIIESIP. [SEC. VI. 

6. The electric telegraph, which was invented by Professor Morse, 

an American, has greatly facilitated business ; and has brought 
all parts of the world into conmuinication. 

7. The Jordan rises in Lebanon, and Hows into the Dead Sea. 

8. The mode of ascent has been often described, and yet it does nut 

appear to be generally understood. 



4. Complex to Simple. 
Direction. — A complex sentence may be contracted into a sim- 
ple sentence by changing a clause into a phrase or word ; thus — 



COMPLEX. SIMPLE. 

1. I expect him to go. 

2. The lost boy has been found. 



1. I expect that he will go. 

2. The boy that was lost has been 

found. 

3. I did not know that he was de- 

feated. 

4. The fact that he was sick was 

unfortunate. 

5. The man who committed the 

murder was hanged. 



3. I did not know of his defeat. 

4. His being sick was unfortunate. 

5. The murderer was hanged. 



EXERCISE 69. 
Contract the following complex sentences into simple sentences. 

1. Socrates proved that virtue is its own reward. 

2. When morning began to dawn, our ship struck on a sunken 

reef, near the rock-bound coast. 

3. It may be easily shown that the earth is round \tfie rotunditi) 

of]. 

4. It is generally believed that the soul is immortal. 

5. The rain has been falling ever since the sun rose. 

6. A tree is known by the fruit that it bears. 

7. As Egypt is annually overflowed by the Nile, it is a very rich 

country. 



MISCELLANEOUS EXEROTSES IN I-ETTER WRITING-. 171 

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN LETTER WRITING AND 

BUSINESS COMPOSITION. 

a. 

LETTER WRITING. 

Arrangement of a Letter. — The arrangement of the parts of a 
letter is important, and the following points should be attended 
to : 

1. The date and the place where it is written. The day, 
month, and year should be given in full. Never date a letter 
merely by the day of the week ; as, ^'Monday morning." 

2. The /c»r;7i of address ; as, ''Sir," "Dear Sir," "My dear 
Charles," "My dearest Father," according to the terms of inti- 
macy between the writer and the person addressed. 

3. The narrative^ or letter proper. 

4. The subscription; as, "Yours truly," "Yours faithfully," 
"Your affectionate brother," etc. (varying, as in No. 2, with the 
relations of the parties), and the name of the writer. 

5. The name of the recipient. 

SUPERSCRIPTIONS AND SUBSCRIPTIONS. 

The following superscriptions, subscriptions, etc., of letters are de- 
signed to show what is now regarded the most approved arrangement 
and style of these parts ; and they may serve as models, according to 
circumstances. 

Some of the most common forms of address are : Sir, Dear Sir, My 
dear Sir, Respected Sir, Sirs, Dear Sirs, Gentlemen, Ladies, Madam, 
Dear Madam, etc. ; Friend Brown, Dear Susan, My Dear Friend, Mother, 
Brother, etc. ; according to the relations of respect, intimacy, or affection 
existing between the parties. Note that the form of address, " Madam," 
•'Dear Madam," is as applicable to unmarried as to married ladies. 

The closing part may be Yours, Yours truly, Most truly yours. Very 
truly yours. Yours respectfully. Respectfully, Sincerely yours ; Your 
friend, obedient servant, etc. ; Yours affectionately, Your affectionate 
friend. Your loving brother, sister, etc., followed by the name of the 
writer. The closing will vary with the relations of the parties. 

Mr., Mrs., Miss, and Master ajre common titles and should be used uu- 



172 ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. [SEC. VI. 

less the person Las a higher title. Messrs. and Misses are prefixed to the 
name of a firm, or to the names of persons collectively, and the name is 
followed by Sirs, Dear Sirs, Gentlemen, or Ladies, as the case may be. 

Medical men have the titles Dr. and M. D. Legal gentlemen, artists, 
and sometimes others of high social standing, have the title Esq. But 
the title Esq. has so completely lost all meaning in this country that 
persons of good taste are wholly ceasing to use it : thus, "Mr. John 
Smith," not "John Smith, Esq." i^^^ Be careful never to use the 
form "Mr. John Smith, Esq." Military men have the titles Gen., 
Maj.-Gen., Col., Capt. , etc., according to rank. Graduates of colleges 
have some academic title, as A.B., A.M., etc. Clergymen have the titles 
Rev., Rev. Dr., and, if bishops, that of Rt. Rev. Hon. is the proper title 
for judges, congressmen, state senators, mayors of cities, heads of gov- 
ernment departments, and others of similar rank ; and His Excellency, 
for the governor of any state, or an ambassador of the United States. 
The President may be addressed as His Excellency, but strict etiquette 
prescribes the form as included in the following models. 



1. Heading or date. 



^amAc'c/ae (^^^., (^/ S, /^'/S, 



3. Introduction. 



4. Body. 



/Old tn^l., Q/ ^ea ^ai>e lo ;^au //ial Q/ 7?io^t 
'/■ acceae {o youi veiy iecn^onao/e ieaue^l, elc. 



5. Subscription. 
^^ou'a ieyiecl/i///y, 



(Si^niu ^. Q^c/uTn^. 



MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN LETTER WRITING. 173 






^av,-c/ M (^mad. Ji. 



Q/o m^e .^:!^oai(i of (bciuca^con, 









174 ANALYSIS AXD SYNTHESIS. [SKC. VI. 



^eai OJ^ac/a 



\ 



'.a??i : 



(2/inceie/u youU, 



Q^^i. (^fleJt'i/enl: 



Q/ -^ciT/e me /io?ioi /o ve, Q/ii, 






3 

Qy^u c/eai (^icefic/ : 

5 



MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN LETTER WRITING. 175 

^eai (^kei Q^/ice : 

^iu/u youU, 

Q^/exanc/ei (^h7i 



?iox. 



Note of Invitation. 
Mr. Stewart requests tlie pleasure of Mr. Marshall's company at 
dinner, on Thursday next, at 5 o'clock. 
124 Vanderbilt Av. 

Monday, 29th Sept. 

Reply. 
Mr. Marshall accepts with pleasure Mr. Stewart's invitation to 
dinner, on Thursday next, at 5 o'clock. 
72 Montague St. 

Tuesday, 30th Sept. 



Letter of Introduction. 

Chicago, Se'pt. 25, 1873. 
Dear Sir, — It gives me pleasure to introduce to you my much 
esteemed friend, Mr. W. P. Johnson. Any attentions that you may 
show him will be gratefully acknowledged and cheerfully recipro- 
cated by Yours truly, 
Hon. Wm. Graham, A. B. Grover. 
27 State Street, 

. Albany, N. Y. 
NOTE. — It is not customary to seal a letter of introduction. 



EXERCISE 70. 
1. Write a letter to your teacher narrating your experiences 
during your last vacation. 



176 ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. [sF.r. vi. 

2. Write and tell your duties at school — your amusments or 
recreations — your walks — books — thoughts or observations. 

3. Write and tell about a visit to a museum or public garden 
— the objects of interest, etc. 

4. Write about the days of your childhood — your earliest 
recollections — your first days at school — your impressions — 
your ideas about that period of your life. 

5. Tell about the book you are reading — the name — the 
subject — the style — the information — your opinion of it — 
any other works by the same author. 

6. Write and tell about an evening party — the number — the 
amusements — the music — the pleasures of social intercourse. 

7. Write the results of the last examination — whether you 
were promoted — what studies you are pursuing with most in- 
terest, etc. 

b. 

BUSINESS COMPOSITION. 

Boston, Oct. 17, 1872. 
Mr. Henry L. Stone, 

Bought of George S. Thompbon & Co. 
48 yds. Muslin, at .22 $10.56 

12 " Drilling, " .18 2.16 

20 " French Chintz, '* .40 8.00 

' 1 doz. Spools Thread, " .37 .37 



Received Payment, $21.09 

GEO. S. THOMPSON & CO. 



Mr. Edward Edson, 



San Francisco, Nov. 1, 1872. 
To Benjamin H. Fenton, Dr 



To 10 lbs. Java Coffee, at 

" 5 " Green Tea, " 

"12 " Brown sugar, " 

'* 4 gals. Molasses, " 



.40 


$4.00 


1.20 


6.00 


.14 


1.68 


.m 


1.50 



Received Payment, $13.18 

BEN J. H. fenton, 

prr. Fred. C. Dow. 



MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN BUSINESS COMPOSITION. 177 

EXERCISE 71. 

Make out the bills for the following articles, and receipt them. 

1. Henry Dixon bought, Feb. 3, 1872, of Peter Brown & Co., 12 lbs. 

of sugar, at 10 cts. ; 8 lbs. of coffee, at 45 cts. ; 4 lbs. of tea, at 

75 cts. 
3. Jameson & Son sold, April 6, 1873, to Richard Roby, 2 doz. 

men's black beaver hats, at $4 apiece ; 6 doz. boys' drab hats, 

at $1,50 apiece ; ^ doz. silk umbrellas, at $4.50 ; i doz. leather 

satchels, at $3.50. 
3. Make out a bill for labor ; for articles purchased at a liardware 

store ; boot-and-shoe store ; bookstore ; dry -goods store ; 

grocery store ; lumber yard, etc. 



Receipt for Rent. 

New York, May 15, 1873. 
I of Messrs. Harper & Brothers, Three Hundred Wine and 
jV^^ Dollars, in full for rent of store No. 20 Canal St., to Sept. 1, 1873. 
WILLIAMSON & RICHARDSON, 

per. Jas. H. Johnson. 

Receipt in full of all Demands. 
$500 1«^. Cambridge, Oct. 15, 1872. 

Received <9/Robt. H. Jenkins, Mve Hundred and -^ Dollars, in full 
of all demands. GEO. H. POWELL. 



EXERCISE 72. 
Make out receipts as above. 

1. Henry A. Nichols receives, March 3, 1873, of Arthur A. An- 

drews, $840.25 on account. 

2. Geo. R. Stone, of Cambridge, this day gives Henry Gilbert $125, 

in full for one quarter's rent of house, No. 10 Elm St. 

3. For the rent of a house ; for services rendered ; for interest on 

a note to date ; for money received on account ; in settlement 
of an account to date ; for investment, etc. 

SWIN. LANG. LESS. — 12 



178 ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. [SEC. VI. 

Order for Goods. 
|500. Cambridge. August 9, 1873 

Edw. H. Hamlin icill please deliver to Queen & Valentine goods to 
the amount of Five Hundred Dollars, and charge the same to 

WILLIAM A. STEWART. 

Order for Money. 
|33. Boston, Feb. 19, 1873. 

Messrs. Brown & Hooker : 

Gentlemen, — Please pap to Thomas Andrews, or order, 77Urti/-thne 
Dollars, due on my account, and oblige. 

Yours respectfidly , 

HENRY W. WILKINS. 

Bank Check. 
No. 27. Chicago, Nov. 3, 1872. 

Jirst Itational ^anh of Chicago, 
Pay to Wm. H. Bowker, or order. Sixty-nine and ■{■^^ Dollars. 
$69AV SAMUEL WALLACE. 



EXERCISE 73. 

Make out the following orders in due form, supplying dates. 

1. Carter Brothers give to Wm. H. Brown an order for 10 barrels of 

flour, Genesee Extra, on Robt. L. Fuller. 

2. Lewis Clark gives Stephen Dennison an order on Brown, Lewis, 

k Co., for $2000. 

3. Robt. Fulton gives to Hiram Day a check on Charles River 

National Bank, Cambridge, Mass., for $1000. 

4. Order somebody to pay money to somebody, or to deliver goods 

to somebody, and charge to your account, or to the account of 
somebody else. 



Promissory Note Payable to Order. 
$300. Richmond, Aug. 8, 1872. 

Ninety days after date, for calue received, I promise to pay James 
DiCKERMAN, or Order, Three Hundred Dollars. 

HENRY G. GRAHAM. 



MISCELLANEOrS EXERCISES IN BUSINESS COMPOSITION. 179 

Promissory Note Payable to Bearer. 
$193tVo- Cincinnati, May 20, 1873. 

On or before April 30, 1874, for value received, I promise to pay Rich- 
ard RowE, or hearer, One Hundred Ninety-tico and j%% Dollars. 

JAMES W. WARD. 

Joint and Several Note. 
$3061^%. Boston, Sept. 4, 1873. 

0)1 demand, for value received, toe jointly and severally promise to pay 
Walter Wheeler, or order, Three Thousand Sixty -one and ^^-^ Dollars, 
icith interest at 7 per cent. WARD, WOOD, & CO. 



EXERCISE 74. 

Write out the following according to the models. 

1. John Scott, of Cambridge, owes Thomas Hooker $400, for which 

he gives his note, payable to him, or to his order, in 4 months 
from March 3, 1873. 

2. On or before the 10th of October, 1873, Stephen Morse, Jr., of 

Boston, promises to pay to William Stickney, or bearer, 
$75.75. Write the note, and date it April 10, 1873. 

3. John Smith, of Peoria, this day promises to pay to William 

Stone, or order, $400, three months after date. 



APPENDIX. 



A. 
PECULIARITIES OF NUMBER. 



Indeterminate Forms. — A few nouns have the same form for 
the pkiral as for the singular. Among these are : 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

sheep sheep 

deer deer 

grouse grouse 

salmon salmon 

heathen heathen 

In these indeterminate forms the number of the noun is to be 
inferred from the context : thus, " A sheep was feeding on the 
hill ; " " Sheep were feeding on the hill." 

Double Plurals. — Some nouns have double plurals, each pos- 
sessing a peculiar signification. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. PLURAL. 

brother brothers (by birth) brethren (of a community). 

cloth cloths (kinds of cloth) clothes (garments). 

die dies (stamps for coining) dice (for play). 

genius geniuses (men of talent) genii (spirits). 

index indexes (contents) indices (algebraic signs). 

pea peas (single ones) pease (collective). 

penny .. . pennies (coins) pence (value or amount). 

staff staves (common use) staflFs (military term). 

shot shot (balls) shots (number of rounds). 

fish fiah (collective) fishes (individuals). 

(181) 



182 



APPENDIX. 



Plurals as Singulars. — Some plural forms are usually 

treated as singular : as, amends, fjallows, news, odds, pains, icages. 

So: 

politics -v 

ethics — I represent Greek plurals, but are now treated as singular. 

physics V Thus, " Mathematics is an improving study ; '■" " Optics 

optics . . i is the science of light." 

mathematics J 

Plurals only. — Some nouns, the names of things, consisting 
of more than one part or forming a pair, have only the plural 
form : 



annals 


entrails 


scissors 


antipodes 


nuptials 


shears 


breeches 


pantaloons 


tongs 


drawers 


pincers 


victuals 


dregs 


scales 


vitals 



Foreign Plurals. — Many foreign nouns, especially those that 
are imperfectly naturalized, retain their foreign plural. * (The 
plurals of such nouns are readily found by leference to a dic- 
tionary.) 

SINGULAR. PLnRAL. 

I formula formulae 

(1) Latin.- < datum data 

' radius radii 

,n\ r^ 1 ( ^^is axes 

(2) OreeTc \ . 

( phenomenon phenomena 

/ox T* 7 • i bandit banditti 

(3) Italian \ . ^ 

I virtuoso virtuosi 

... _-. , ( cherub cherubim 

(4) Hebrew - , 

I seraph seraphim 



* 1. Many Latin nouns adopted into our language retain their Latin endings : 
Nouns iu us (masculine) form the plural in i ; as, focus, foci. 

" " us (neuter) " " " " era ; as, genus, genera. 

" " uni " " " " a ; as, stratum, strata. 

" " a " " " " ce ; as, nebula, nebulae. 

" " ea; " " " " ices ; as, vortex, vortices. 

2. Some Greek nouns adopted into our language retain the Greek endings in the 
plural : thus — 

Nouns in is form the plural in es ; as, crisis, crises. 

" " on '■'■ " " " a ; as, phenomenon, phenomena. 



MODEL OF CONJUGATION OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 183 

Compounds. — With regard to compounds the following jjoints 
are to be noted : 

I. The plural of compound nouns is generally formed by adding the suffix to 
the principal noun, that is, to the noun described : as, fruit- frees, brothers^ 
in-law, atds-de-camp. 

II. "When the last part of a compovmd is an adjective (according to the French 
idiom) the suffix is usually added to the noun : as, attorneys-genered, courts- 
martial. 

Knights-Templars pluralizes both parts ; as do also men-servants, ivomen- 

servants. 
HI. When the words are so closely allied that the meaning is incomplete till 

the whole is known, the plural sign is added at the end : as, forget-me-nots. 



B. 

SYNOPSIS OF A REGULAR VERB IN THE SECOND PER- 
SON SINGULAR, OLD STYLE. 

Indicative Thou lovest, thou lovedst, thou shalt or wilt love, thou hast loved, 

thou hadst loved, thou shalt or wilt have loved. 

Potential Thou mayst love, thou mightst love, thou mayst have loved, thou 

mightst have loved. 

Siibjunctive . -If thou love, if thou loved. 

Imperative.... liOve thou. 



0. 

MODEL OF CONJUGATION OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 

NOTE. — The mode of formation of the compound parts of an irregu- 
lar verb is precisely the same as that of a regular verb ; but the 
irregularity of the past and past participle renders it desirable to 
illustrate the paradigm of the verb, and to practice pupils therein. 



TO SEE. — Active Voice. 

Principal Parts — Present — see. Past — saw. Past Participle — seen. 

Synopsis of the Verb "To See" in the Third Person Singular 

OF ALL THE MOODS AND TeNSES IN THE ACTIVE VOICE. 

Indicative... E.e sees, he saw, he shall or will see, he has seen, he bKd feen, ha 
shall or will have seen. 



184 APPENDIX. 

Potential. . . He may see, he might see, he may have seen, he might have seen. 
Subjunctive . .If he see, if he saw. 
Imperative. . . See (you — thou, ye). 

Synopsis of the Verb " To See " in the First Person Plural ov 
ALL the Moods and Tenses in the Passive Voice. 

Indicative We are seen, we were seen, we shall or will be seen, we have been 

seen, we had been seen, we shall or will have been seen. 

Potential. . . .We may be seen, we might be seen, we may have been seen, we might 
have been seen. 

Subjunctive.. It we be seen, if we were seen. 

Imperative. . . Be (you — thou, ye) seen. 



D. 

FORMS OF CONJUGATION. 

Besides the comnion style of the verb, several special modes 
of conjugation are used to express particular meanings. The 
principal of these are : 

(1) Progressive. (2) Emphatic. (3) Interrogative. 

I. Progressive Form. 

The progressive form of a verb is that which represents the 
continuance of the action or state asserted by the verb : as, ''I 
am luriting ; " "He was sleepwg.''^ 

The progressive form of a verb is made by combining its present participle 
with the variations of the auxiliary verb " to be." 

II. Emphatic Form. 

The emphatic form of a verb is made by joining do and diil 
with the infinitive (without to) : as, " I do learn ; " "I did learn."' 

This combination is found only in the present and the past 
indicative (active), and in the imperative. 

Present.— I do learn, thou dost learn, he does learn, etc. 
Past. —I did learn, thou didst learn, he did learn, etc. 
Imperative. — Do learn. 

III. Interrogative Form. 

The interrogative form is that which is used in asking a 
question : as, "Can he see ? '' " Shall he be punished ?" 



CONJUGATION OF THE AUXILIARY YERB TO BE. • 185 

This form is used in the indicative and potential moods. 

I, A verb is conjugated interrogatively by (1) placing the subject after the 
verb : as, " Hearest thou ? " or (2) by placing the subject between the auxil- 
iary and the verb; as, "May we go ?" or (3) by placing the subject after 
the first auxiliary when two or more auxiliaries are used : as, "• Could Ue 
have called ? " 

n. In common usage, the present and the past of the indicative mood are 
rendered interrogative by the use of do and did, with the subject following : 
as, " Do you hear ? " " Did you hear ? " 



TO SEE. 
IN THE INTERROGATIVE FORM. 
Active Voice. 
Indicative Mood. — See I, or do I see ? Saw I, or did I see ? Shall or will I see ? 
Have I seen ? Had I seen ? Shall or will I have seen ? 

Potential. — May I see ? Might I see ? May I have seen ? Might I have seen ? 

Passive Voice. 

Indicative Mood. — Am I seen ? Was I seen ? Shall I be seen ? Have I been 
seen ? Had I been seen ? Shall or will I have been seen ? 

Potential. — May I be seen ? Might I be seen ? May I have been seen ? Might 
I have been seen ? 



E. 
CONJUGATION OF THE AUXILIARY VERB TO BE. 



AUXILIARY OF THE PASSIVE VOICE AND OF THE PROGRESSIVE FORM. 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 

Present — am. Past — was. Past Participle — been. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. I am, 1. We are, 

2. Thou art, 2. You are, 

3. He is ; 3. They are. 



1. I was, 1. We were, 

3. Thou wast, 3. You were, 

3. He was ; 3. They were. 



186 • . APPENDIX, 

Future Tense. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1, 1 shall or will be, 1. We shall or will be, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt be, 2. You shall or will be, 

3. He shall or will be ; 3. They shall or will be. 



Present Perfect Tense. 

1. I have been, 1. We have been, 

2. Thou hast been, 2. You have been, 
i. He has been ; 3. They have been. 



Past Perfect Tense. 

1. I had been, 1. We had been, 

2. Thou hadst been, 2. You had been, 

3. He had been ; 3. They had been. 



Future Perfect Tense. 

1. I shall or will have been, 1. We shall or will have been, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt have been, 2. You shall or will have been, 

3. He shall or will have been ; 3. They shall or will have been. 



POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

1. I may be, 1. We may be, 

2. Thou mayst be, 2. You may be, 

3. He may be ; 3. They may be. 

Past Tense. 

1. I might be, 1. We might be, 

2. Thou mightst be, 2. You might be, 

3. He might be ; 3. They might be. 



Present Perfect Tense. 

1. I may have been, 1. We may have been, 

2. Thou mayst have been, 2. You may have been, 

3. He may have been ; 3. They may have been. 



Past Perfect Tense. 

1. I might have been, 1. We might have been, 

2. Thou mightst have been, 2. Yon might have been, 

3. He might have been ; 3. They might have been. 



LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 



187 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOODo 



Present Tense. 



Past Tenseo 



SINGULAR. 

1, If I be, 

2, If thou be, 

3, If he be ; 



PLURAL. 

1. If we be, 

2. If you be, 

3. If they be. 



SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. If I weie, 1. If we were, 

2. If thou were, 2. If you were, 

3. If he were ; 3. If they were. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Be (you — thou, ye). 

INFINITIVES. 

Present— to be. Perfect —to have been. (Gerunds) — being ; having been. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present — being. Past — been. Perfect — having been. 



LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 

Explanation. — "When a verb has a past, or past participle, or 
both, of the regular conjugation, this fact is indicated by plac- 
ing -ed after the form or forms. This -ed is to be suffixed to the 
root, care being taken to observe the rule of spelling for deriva- 
tive words. 

When the -ed is in heavy type it indicates that the -ed form 
is preferable. 

The forms in italics are either out of use, seldom used, or not 
used by the best authors. 

PAST PARTICIPLEc 

abode 

arisen 

awaked 

been 

born 

borne 

beaten, beat 

begun 

beheld 

belaid, -ed 

bent, -ed 



PRESENT. 


PAST. 


abide 


abode 


arise 


arose 


awake 


awoke, -ed 


be or am 


was 


bear (to bring forth) 


bore, hare 


bear {to ca/rry) 


bore, bare 


beat 


beat 


begin 


began 


behold 


beheld 


belay 


belaid, -ed 


bend 


bent, -ed 



188 


APPENDIX. 




PRESKNTo 


PAST. 


PAST PARTICIPLK- 


bet 


bet, -ed 


bet, -ed 


bereave 


bereft 


bereft, -ed 


beseech 


besought 


besought 


bid 


bid, bade 


bidden, bid 


bind 


bound 


bouud 


bite 


bit 


bitten, bit 


bleed 


bled 


bled 


blend 


blent, -ed 


blcDt, -ed 


bless 


blest, -ed 


blest, -ed 


blow 


blew 


blown 


break 


broke, hi^ake 


brokeu, broke 


breed 


bred 


bred 


bring 


brought 


brought 


build 


built, -ed 


built, -ed 


burn 


burnt, -ed 


burnt, -ed 


burst 


burst 


burst 


buy 


bought 


bought 


cast 


cast 


cast 


catch 


caught, -ed 


caught, -ed 


chide 


chid, filiode 


chidden, chid 


choose 


chose 


chosen 


cleave {to adhere) 


cleaved, clave 


cleaved 


cleave ( to split) 


clove, clett, clave 


cleft, cloven 


climb 


climbed, clo7nb 


climbed 


cling 


clung 


clung 


clothe 


clothed, clad 


clad, -ed 


come 


came 


come 


creep 


crept 


crept 


crow 


crew, -ed 


crowed 


cut 


cut 


cut 


dare {to venture) 


durst, -ed 


dared 


deal 


dealt, -ed 


dealt, -ed 


dig 


dug, -^d 


dug, -ed 


do 


did 


done 


draw 


drew 


drawn 


dream 


dreamt, -ed 


dreamt, -ed 



LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 



189 



PRESENT. 


PAgT. 


PAST PARTCIPLE. 


dress 


drest, -ed 


drest, -ed 


drink 


drank, drunk 


drunk, drunken 


drive 


drove 


driven 


dwell 


dwelt, -ed 


dwelt, -ed 


eat 


ate, eat 


eaten, eat 


fall 


fell 


fallen 


feed 


fed 


fed 


feel 


felt 


felt 


fight 


fought 


fought 


find 


found 


found 


flee 


fled 


fled 


fling 


flung 


flung 


fly 


flew 


flown 


forbear 


forbore 


forborne 


forget 


forgot 


forgotten, forgot 


forsake 


forsook 


forsaken 


freeze 


froze 


frozen 


get 


got 


got, gotten 


gild 


gilt, -ed 


gilt, -ed 


gird 


girt, -ed 


girt, -ed 


give 


gave 


given 


go 


went 


gone 


grave 


graved 


graven, -ed 


grind 


ground 


ground 


grow 


grew 


grown 


hang* 


hung 


hung 


have 


had 


had 


hear 


heard 


heard 


heave 


hove, -ed 


hoven, -ed 


hew 


hewed 


hewn, -ed 


hide 


hid 


hidden, hid 


hold 


held 


held, Jwlden 


keep 


kept 


kept 


kneel 


knelt, -ed 


knelt, -ed 



■'Hang " (to take life by hauging) is regular. 



190 


APPENDIX. 




PRESENT. 


PAST. 


PAST PARTICIPLB. 


knit 


knit,-ed 


knit, -ed 


know 


knew 


known 


lade 


laded 


laded, laden 


lay 


laid 


laid 


lead 


led 


led 


leap 


leapt, -ed 


leapt, -ed 


learn 


learnt, -ed 


learnt, -ed 


leave 


left 


left 


lend 


lent 


lent 


lie {to recline) 


lay 


lain 


light 


lit, -ed 


lit, -ed 


lose 


lost 


lost 


make 


made 


made, 


mean 


meant 


meant 


meet 


met 


met 


mow 


mowed 


mown, -ed 


pass 


past, -ed 


past, -ed 


pay 


paid 


paid. 


pen {to inclose) 


pent, -ed 


pent, -ed 


prove 


proved 


proven, -ed 


quit 


quit, -ed 


quit, -ed 


rap 


rapt, -ed 


rapt, -ed 


read 


rgad 


read 


rend 


rent 


rent 


ride 


rode, rid 


ridden, rid 


ring 


rang, rung 


rung 


rise 


rose 


risen 


rive 


rived 


riven, -ed 


run 


ran, run 


run 


saw 


sawed 


sawn, -ed 


say 


said 


said 


see 


saw 


seen 


seek 


sought 


sought 


seethe 


sod, -ed 


podden, -ed 


sell 


sold 


sold 


send 


sent 


sent 





LIST OF IRREGULAR 


VERBS. 


PRESENT. 


PASTo 


PAST PARTCIPLE. 


set 


set 


set 


shake 


shook 


shaken 


shape 


shaped 


shapen, -ed 


shave 


shaved 


shaven, -ed 


shear 


sheared, shore 


shorn, -ed 


shine 


shone, -ed 


shone, -ed 


shoe 


shod 


shod 


shoot 


shot 


shot 


show- 


showed 


shown, -ed 


shred 


shred 


shred 


shrink 


shrank, shrunk 


shrunk, shrunken 


sing 


sang, sung 


sung 


sink 


sank, sunk 


sunk 


sit 


sat 


sat 


slay 


slew 


slain 


sleep 


slept 


slept 


slide 


slid 


slidden, slid 


sling 


slung, slang 


slung 


slink 


slunk, slank 


slunk 


slit 


slit, -ed 


slit, -ed 


smell 


smelt, -ed 


smelt, -ed 


smite 


smote 


smitten, smit 


sow- 


sowed 


sown, -ed 


speak 


spoke, spake 


spoken 


speed 


sped, -ed 


sped, -ed 


spell 


spelt, -ed 


spelt, -ed 


spend 


spent 


spent 


spill 


spilt, -ed 


spilt, -ed 


spin 


spun, span 


spun 


spit 


spit, spat 


spit 


split 


split, -ed 


split, -ed 


spoil 


spoilt, -ed 


spoilt, -ed 


spread 


spread 


spread 


spring 


sprang, sp?'U7ig 


sprung 


stand 


stood 


stood 


stave 


stove, -ed 


stove, -ed 



191 



192 


APPE^'DIX. 




PRESENT. 


PAST. 


FAST PARTICIPLB. 


Stay 


staid, -ed 


Staid, -ed 


steal 


stole 


stolen 


stick 


stuck 


stuck 


sting 


stung 


stung 


stride 


strode, st7'id 


stridden 


strike 


struck 


struck, stricken 


string 


strung 


strung 


strive 


strove 


striven 


strow, strew 


St rowed, streiced 


strown, strewn 


swear 


swore, sware 


sworn 


sweat 


sweat, -ed 


sweat, -ed 


sweep 


swept 


swept 


swell . 


swelled 


swollen, -ed 


swim 


swam, sioum 


swum 


swing 


swung 


swung 


take 


took 


taken 


teach 


taught 


taught 


tear 


tore, tare 


torn 


tell 


told 


told 


think 


thought 


thought 


thrive 


throve, -ed 


thriven, -ed 


throw 


threw 


thrown 


tread 


trod 


trodden, trod 


wake 


woke, -ed 


woke, -ed 


wax 


waxed 


waxen, -ed 


wear 


wore 


worn 


weave 


wove 


woven 


wed 


wed, -ed 


wed, -ed 


weep 


wept 


wept 


wet 


wet, -ed 


wet, -ed 


whet 


whet, -ed 


whet, -ed 


win 


won 


won 


wind 


wound, -ed 


wound 


work 


wrought, -ed 


wrought, -ed 


wring 


wrung 


wrung 


write 


wrote, wnt 


written 



Webster's School Dictionaries 



REVISED EDITIONS 



WEBSTER'S SCHOOL DICTIONARIES in their revised form con* 
stitute a progressive series, carefully graded and especially adapted for 
Primary Schools, Common Schools, High Schools, Academies, and pri- 
vate students. These Dictionaries have all been thoroughly revised, 
entirely reset, and made to conform in all essential respects to that great 
standard authority in English, — ^^Vebster's International Dictionary. 

WEBSTER'S PRIMARY SCHOOL DICTIONARY . . . $0.48 
Containing over 20,000 words and meanings, with over 400 
illustrations. 

WEBSTER'S COMMON SCHOOL DICTIONARY . . . $0.72 
Containing over 25,000 words and meanings, with over 500 
illustrations. 

WEBSTER'S HIGH SCHOOL DICTIONARY .... $0.98 

Containing about 37,000 words and definitions, and an appendix 

giving a pronouncing vocabulary of Biblical, Classical, Mythological, 

Historical, and Geographical proper names, with over 800 illustrations. 

WEBSTER'S ACADEMIC DICTIONARY. Cloth, $1.50; Indexed, $1.80 
The Same . - . . . Half Calf, $2.75 ; Indexed, $3.00 
Abridged directly from the International Dictionary, and giving the 
orthography, pronunciations, definitions, and synonyms of the large 
vocabulary of words in common use, with an appendix containing 
various useful tables, with over 800 illustrations. 

SPECIAL EDITIONS 

Webster's Countinghouse Dictionary . 
Webster's Condensed Dictionary . Cloth, 

The Same . . . Half Calf, 

Webster's Handy Dictionary 
Webster's Pocket Dictionary. Cloth . 

The Same. Roan Flexible . 

The Same. Roan Tucks 

The Same. Morocco, Indexed . 
Webster's American People's Dictionary and Manual 
Webster's Practical Dictionary .... 



Sheep, Indexed, $2.40 
$1.44; Indexed, 1.75 
$2.75; Indexed, 3.00 
.15 
.57 
.69 
.78 
.90 



Copies of any of Webstei-'' s Dictionaries will be sent, prepaid^ to any 
address on receipt of the price by the Publishers ; 



New York 
(104) 



American Book Company 

• Cincinnati ♦ 



Chicago 



For the Teaching of Spelling 



The Baldwin Speller (Shear and Lynch) 20 cents 

The words in this speller were selected by class-room 
teachers after observing the class vocabulary for a year. 
They are arranged according to difficulty. The words for 
each year's work are divided into groups of four lessons 
each, each group forming a week's work, the fifth lesson 
of each week being an oral review. In the earliest review 
lessons the accentuation and pronunciation of the words 
are marked. Illustrative sentences show the uses and 
meanings of words with the same sound. The book is 
based upon actual conditions in the school, and not upon 
mere theories. 

Baldwin's Spelling by Grades 20 cents 

While containing the words that appear in Baldwin's 
Readers, this book may be used to good advantage with 
any series of readers. The words in the book are arranged 
in numbered groups, each group being sufficient for a single 
lesson. Review lists of words of special difficulty are a 
feature of the book. In these review lists most of the 
proper names are pronounced. The gradation and arrange- 
ment of this work are such as to adapt it for use as a prac- 
tical spellng-book. 

Barnes's Natural Slant Writing Speller, per doz. 48 cents 

Barnes's Vertical Writing Speller, per doz. 48 cents 

These writing spellers provide space for the daily lessons, 
model script at the head of each page, simple and practical 
rules for spelling a list of words often misspelled, and 
necessary guides for capitalization and punctuation. They 
are adapted for use with any text-book in spelling. 



AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY 

NEW YORK CINCINNATI CHICAGO 

[36] 



Barnes's Natural Slant Penmanship 



The system of writing represented in these new copy 
books combines all the advantages of the vertical with the 
speed and beauty of regular slant writing. 

It is well known that an extreme slant tends to angu- 
larity, while vertical writing is usually slow and tends to 
an unsightly back-hand or irregular slant. If left to 
themselves, without specific directions, children naturally 
fall into a certain slant in writing, — intermediate between 
vertical and slant writing. This natural slant has been 
adopted as the standard in these copy books. 

Forms of Letters. — Natural Slant copies are de- 
signed to be written^ not printed. They have the simplicity 
and the full, round, open style of the best vertical forms, 
but avoid some of the extremes and eccentricities that 
have characterized that style of writing. In every instance 
the form of capital employed has been selected, first, 
because of its legibility; second, because of its ease of 
execution; and third, because of its graceful form. Every 
copy is sensible ajid significaiit^ and as nearly as possible the 
subject matter relates to topics which interest the pupils 
of the grades for which the respective books are intended. 
In other words, the writing exercises are made to correlate 
with the other branches of study pursued in the schools. 

The Series includes Books A, B, C, and D, small size, 
illustrated, to be written with pen or pencil, and Books i to 8, 
full size, the first two books illustrated. A set of penman- 
ship Wall Charts in four sheets is published to accom- 
pany this series of copy books. 

BOOKS A, B, C, and D, per dozen $0.60 

BOOKS 1 to 8, per dozen 75 

CHARTS, per set of four sheets . . . . , , 1,50 



Copies sent to any address^ prepaid^ on receipt of pries, 

American Book Company 

New York • * Cincinnati • Chi^^ 



Eclectic School Readings 

Fresh, interesting, and instructive books for supple- 
mentary reading. Each volume is attractively illustrated 
and handsomely bound in cloth. 



FAIRY TALES 

Bakewell's True Fairy Stories . 
Baldwin's Fairy Stories and Fables . 
Lane's Stories for Children 
Logie and Uecke's Story Reader 
McCullough's Little Stories for Little People 
Pyle's Prose and Verse for Childrea . 
Simms's Child Literature 
Wood's The Children's First Story Book . 

FAMOUS STORIES AND LITERATURE 

Baldwin's Fifty Famous Stories Retold 
Baldwin's Old Stories of the East 
Baldwin's Old Greek Stories .... 
Bradish's Old Norse Stories .... 
Clarke's Stories from the Arabian Nights . 
Defoe's Robinson Crusoe (Stephens) 
Dickens's Story of Little Nell ( Gordon) 
Dickens's Tale of Two Cities (Kirk) . 
Dickens's Twelve Christmas Stories (Gordon) . 
Hall's Homeric Stories ..... 
Kupfer's Lives and Stories Worth Remembering 
Scott's Kenilworth ( Norris) .... 
Scott's Quentin Durward (Norris) 
Scott's Talisman (Dewey) "... 

Smythe's Reynard the Fox .... 



GEOGRAPHICAL READERS 

Krout's Alice's Visit to the Hawaiian Islands . 
Shaw's Big People and Little People of Other Lands . 

ETHICAL AND PATRIOTIC READERS 

Marden's Stories from Life . . . . . 
Markwick and Smith's The True Citizen . 
Persons's Our Country in Poem and Prose 
Smiles's Self Help (Bower) 



$0.35 
.35 
•25 
•30 
.25 
.40 
•30 
.25 



35 
45 
45 
45 
60 
50 
50 
50 
50 
40 
45 
50 
50 
50 
30 



.45 
.30 



•45 
.60 



AMERICAN 



BOOK COMPANY 



Eclectic School Readings 

Fresh, interesting, and instructive books for supple- 
mentary reading. Each volume is attractively illustrated 
and handsomely bound in cloth. 

HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL READERS 

Arnold's Stories of Ancient Peoples . . . $0.50 

Baldwin's Discovery of the Old Northwest . . .60 
Baldwin's Conquest of the Old Northwest . . .60 

Baldwin's Abraham Lincoln ..... .60 

Clarke's Story of Caesar 45 

Eggleston's Stories of Great Americans ... .40 
Eggleston's Stories of American Life and Adventure .50 

Guerber's Story of the Thirteen Colonies . . . .65 
Guerber's Story of the Great Republic ... .65 

Guerber's Story of the English 65 

Guerber's Story of the Chosen People ... .60 

Guerber's Story of the Greeks 60 

Guerber's Story of the Romans .... .60 
Home and Scobey's Stories of Great Artists . . .40 

Pitman's Stories of Old France 60 

Shaw's Discoverers and Explorers 35 

Wallach's Historical and Biographical Narratives . .35 
Winterburn's The Spanish in the Southwest . , .55 

CLASSICAL STORIES 

Clarke's Story of Troy ...... .60 

Clarke's Story of Ulysses 60 

Clarke's Story of Aeneas 45 

NATURE STUDY 

Abbott's A Boy on a Farm 45 

Bartlett's Animals at Home ..... .45 

Bradish's Stories of Country Life . . . c .40 

Dana's Plants and Their Children 65 

Holder's Stories of Animal Life 60 

Kelly's Short Stories of our Shy Neighbors . . .50 

Monteith's Some Useful Animals 50 

Needham's Outdoor Studies 40 

Pyle's Stories of Humble Friends 50 

Stokes's Ten Common Trees 40 

Walker's Our Birds 



AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY 

[iia] 



BARNES'S NEW HISTORIES 
OF THE INITED STATES 



BARNES'S ELEMENTARY HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Told in Biographies by James Baldwin. Cloth, i2mo, 

360 pages. With maps and illustrations .... $0*60 

BARNES'S SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Thoroughly revised and brought down to date. Half 
leather, 8vo, 432 pages. With maps and illustrations . 1.00 



THESE standard and popular histories have been thoroughly 
modernized, both as to appearance and contents. They 
offer present-day views of history and methods of teaching. 
The larger book has been revised in every particular, and the 
smaller one entirely rewritten by that charming and well-known 
writer for children, Dr. Jaisies Baldwin. 

The Elementary History tells the story of the country 
in a series of biographies of important men as recommended 
by the Committee of Fifteen. The incidents narrated show 
the manners of the time, and the stories are all intensely inter- 
esting. The numerous illustrations form an important aid to 
the understanding of the text. 

In the School History, while the fascinating literary style 
and the remarkably successful distinctive features of the original 
volume have been retained, greater prominence has been given 
to industrial and social development. References for collat- 
eral reading have been inserted at frequent intervals, and many 
new maps and pictures introduced. 

Write for illustrated descriptive circular. 



AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY, Publishers 

NEW YORK . CINCINNATI . CHICAGO 



(118J 



The Natural Geographies 



NATURAL ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY 

Linen Binding, Quarto, 144 pages , . . Price 60 cents 

NATURAL ADVANCED GEOGRAPHY 

Linen Binding, Large Quarto, 160 pages . . . Price $1.25 
By Jacques W. Redway, F.R.G.S., and Russell Hinman, 
Author of the Eclectic Physical Geography. 

The publication of The Natural Geographies marks a new era in the 
study and teaching of geography. Some of the distinctive features which 
characterize this new series are : 

1. A Natural Plan of Development, based on physical geography and 

leading in a natural manner to the study of historical, industrial, 
and commercial geography. 

2. Clear and distinct political maps showing correctly the comparative 

size of different countries, and physical maps showing relief by 
contour lines and different colors, as in the best government maps. 

3. Inductive and comparative treatment of subjects according to the 

most approved pedagogical principles. 

4. Frequent exercises and reviews leading to the correlation and com- 

parison of the parts of the subject already studied. 

5. Topical outlines for the language work required by the Courses of 

Study of the best schools, 

6. Supplementary Exercises including laboratory work and references 

for collateral reading. 

7. Numerous original and appropriate pictures and graphic diagrams 

to illustrate the text. 

8. Clear explanations of each necessary term where it first occurs, and 

omission of formal definitions at the beginning of the book. 

9. Strict accordance, in method and treatment, with the recommenda- 

tions of the Committee of Fifteen. 



Illustrated Circulars describing the plan and method of The Natural 
Geographies will be sent free to ajiy address on application. 

Copies of The Natural Geographies will be sent, prepaid, to any address 
on receipt of the price by the Publishers : 

American Book Company 

New York ♦ Cincinnati ♦ Chicago 

(109) 



THE NATURAL 
COURSE IN MUSIC 

By FREDERIC H. RIPLEY and THOMAS TAPPER 



HARMONIC SERIES— Six Books 

This series, the newest of the well-known Natural Music 
Course, is a working course of power-giving quality; it 
affords children an easy mastery over musical symbols; it 
enables them to render appreciatively and agreeably the 
printed page; it promotes a love for music, rather than a 
mere attachment for a few songs; it develops the auditory 
imagination; and it makes the power to express musical 
thoughts a familiar possession. From the first lesson to 
the last the child is trained to enjoy pure music, and is 
carefully drilled in each step as it occurs in the books and 
charts. 

NATURAL MUSIC SERIES— Seven Books 

Among the notable characteristics of this scries are ade- 
quate prominence given to the element of rhythm, proper 
attention to tone-production, effective treatment of chro- 
matics — an essential but often neglected subject in view 
of its great use in modern music — and abundant dictation 
exercises, which afford a training in self-expression and 
originality, and form an important aid in learning to read 
music. 

SHORT COURSE IN MUSIC— Two Books 

Designed for graded or ungraded schools in which a more 
complete course is cither unnecessary or impracticable. 
Particularly adapted to those schools which have no special 
teacher of music. 

ROTE SONG BOOK— (First Steps in Music) 

Contains a carefully prepared series of music lessons for 
beginners, with ample directions and appropriate material 
for use during the first year in school. The songs arc 
simple in character and well suited for young children. 

CHARTS— Seven Sets 

These furnish valuable drill exercises supplementary to 
those in the readers, and are intended to be used in con- 
junction with the books. Each new difficulty encountered 
in the latter is first made clear by suitable exercises in the 
charts. 

AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY 

[140] 



UL 25 I905v 



UBRARV OF CONGRESS^ 

MlMtlllll 



iiui: 



003 243 962 7^ 



